What a Greek polis. Birth of the Greek polis

Greece in antiquity- this is not one whole state in the understanding of contemporaries. The ancient country consisted of poleis - city-states. They were independent units that considered themselves independent, but if it was necessary to unite against an external enemy, the allies instantly came to each other’s aid.

A special form of organization of economics, law and political relations
Any of the policies consisted of urban development and the territory surrounding it. These were fields of farmland, pastures, farms. They were called "choirs". These mini-states arose according to the unique political, economic and legal views of the Hellenes. At first they fought against the remnants of the primitive system with clan orders. Afterwards, as a result of the growth of commodity-money relations and the division of crafts, agricultural preferences, and social struggle, separate communities arose.
From an economic point of view, the property of farmers belonged both to the community and was of a private nature. Moreover, private property was defined only for full representatives of the policies, which owe their origin. There were few such residents, while the rest were considered incompetent. Among them:

Absolutely powerless slaves.
Craftsmen.
Free traders.
Representatives of ethnic groups and foreigners who have few rights.

Wealthy citizens of the city-state were endowed not only with the right of private property and land ownership, but also had slaves. For performing public service and fulfilling their military duties, residents of the policies were paid a salary.
If required, all residents aged 17 to 65 stood up to protect the policies. No matter how many there were, in wartime they represented the people's militia. It included everyone, regardless of social status and income. Only the rich performed higher tasks: they led foot troops with excellent weapons. Poorer representatives of wealthy communities could only dominate over not very well-armed soldiers.
Every resident of the policy was a patriot of his homeland. A special ideology reigned in the city-states. In a political sense, these states were united by one thing: the government consisted of representatives of the public - “apella”. It also included full-fledged residents of the policies, who made up the Areopagus or Senate. There were also elected positions.

These are the "magistrates". The political system of each polis can be equated to a democratic one, since the state was ruled by a popular assembly. However, there were policies that introduced an oligarchic or even tyrannical type of government. This was Sparta. But Athens remained democratic at almost all times, even when under oppression and in complete destruction.

As for the economy, the dominant role was played by territories, the amount of fertile land and livestock. In addition, excellent relations between farmers, traders and artisans made the economy of the policy stronger, from which the state acquired greater independence and influence in the general political arena. Sparta can be considered such a polis. But Corinth, which did not have such a rich chora, belonged rather to the craft and trade varieties of the economic system.

At one time, policies underwent a crisis. For example, when the institution of private property was highly developed, some land owners became completely poor or went bankrupt. This state of affairs is typical for the period of the 5th century. BC. It lasted for about a century.

Draconian methods and reforms of Solon

These were the methods of rule of a certain Dragon Emperor. He issued a set of legislative acts that were extremely cruel. We managed to save only a few names, the essence of which is already clear. Among the draconian methods:

Complete patriarchy.
The legality of bonded slavery.
Possibility of inevitable blood feud.
Very high property tax rate.

The council, which essentially ruled Athens, consisted of 400 full citizens. They were given the right to bear arms.
Afterwards there was another important period in the life of Greece - the effect of the new legislation of Solon. This was facilitated by quite revolutionary sentiments among social activists. They almost openly opposed the tribal aristocracy. Prosperous traders and industrialists followed the same example. The revolution happened in the 7th century. BC. Of course, it was more like a banal struggle for power and the desire for a better life for certain segments of the population. As always, the losers were the lower classes.
As a result, the struggle led to Solon entering the political arena. He was elected archon and given exclusive and unique powers. Accordingly, this ruler favored the family aristocracy. A distinctive feature of Solon's innovations was the reform of debt slavery. All debt obligations were cancelled. People in bondage were released, and those who were sold to other countries were returned to their homeland.
The new ruler divided the residents into several categories, depending on their wealth and social status, down to the lowest stratum. Representatives of the first 3 categories had the right to be appointed to government positions. The highest of them were occupied by first-class students. The fourth type of community was included only in the national assembly.
Each policy had a “Council 400”. Meetings were held annually. The representative office consisted of one hundred people from each tribe. Solon also formed a court that could be considered popular, since it included members of all 4 categories. Thus, the clan system was preserved, and the phyla (4 classes) inhabited Athens and other policies. This state order was maintained for 30 years.

Activities of Cleisthenes

If we consider the life of city-states using the example of Athens, it is permissible to say that almost all city-states followed a similar path. Every nation protested against dictatorship and tyranny. Cleisthenes, a fairly distinguished resident of Greece, led one of the trends of populism, which opposed tyrants. As a result, having become a successful politician, this figure seized power.
Thus, the clan system in Greece was practically eliminated. This period dates back to 500 B.C. BC. The division of the population was carried out not by class and economic component, but by territory. The Phils were liquidated. They became territorial phyles. There were 10 of them. Each of them included 3 territories. The population consisted of only 1 third of villagers, the rest were city residents. Demes were also formed - these are even smaller units of a third of phyla. Each deme was headed by a headman.

The policies differed significantly in the number of inhabitants and class composition. The largest of them was Sparta. Over 200 thousand people lived on an area of more than 8,000 square kilometers.
Next in terms of quantitative composition is Attica. Athens had an area of only 2.5 km2, but practically the same population as Sparta - about 150-170 thousand.
There were city-states that were located on only 40 km2, and their population was several hundred people. On average, the territory of the policies in Greece was up to 200 km2, which was inhabited by 15 thousand inhabitants. Only 1-2 thousand could be full-fledged warriors.
It so happened that the policies were very identical in political structure. The people's assembly characterized each of the city-states. People made final decisions, regardless of what rulers or oligarchs inclined them to do. This is how citizens governed their state-polis.
Polis are unique units, known throughout the world for their distinctive traditions. Such city-states existed only in Greek society. And now Greece is divided into provinces, but at the same time it is already a single state.
Polis have always respected the opinion of the majority. The owners of a large amount of land and extensive farming also had a certain weight. Revolutions and almost revolutionary events had no effect on the established order. City-states existed for quite a long time, ingrained in the minds of politicians and ordinary people.

Greek dance Sirtaki

All inclusive in Greece

Some Greek hotels offer an all-inclusive system. Unlike Turkey and Egypt, where All inclusive is available in most hotels, not all Greek hoteliers prefer to implement it at home. Meanwhile, this type of vacation is very profitable for a large number of tourists. This includes three buffet meals a day on site and an excellent selection of drinks.

Polis in Ancient Greece

Plato the great philosopher

Plato is the great philosopher and thinker of antiquity. According to legend, his real name was Aristocles, like the name of his grandfather, and only much later he was nicknamed Plato because of the width (platos) of his shoulders. Plato came from a very noble Athenian family, the ancestor of which was King Codrus. In all likelihood, he was the youngest of four children in the family.

The history of Thebes, one of the oldest cities in Greece, dates back to the heroic period. The “Seven Gates” of Thebes gave Hellas and the whole world the divine heroes Hercules and Dionysus. The names of Cadmus, Zetus and Amphion, Labdacids, Oedipus and many others are intertwined in the so-called Theban cycle of myths - a true treasure of the epic of Ancient Hellas.

For a well-governed city is the greatest stronghold; everything is contained in it, and as long as it is preserved, everything is whole, but when it perishes, everything perishes.

In general, πόλις is simply “city” from Greek. However, the cities of ancient Greece were significantly different from all other cities of all other times. They are most similar only to the cities of Italy during the Renaissance.

Polis appeared after the Dark Ages of the Ancient World. Once upon a time there was a very developed Cretan-Minoan civilization in Greece, but it developed more in an Asian direction. It was a peaceful, matriarchal society dominated by the arts, trade and navigation. It fell under the onslaught of the invading Achaeans, who were illiterate, but were warlike and possessed strong bronze weapons. Civilization collapsed, and the primitive state practically returned. The Achaeans believed that these huge buildings were clearly built by the gods.

However, the degradation of Greece ultimately allowed the emergence of such a unique phenomenon, which is the poleis. These were city-states, but their form of organization was unique. There was a large mass of citizens who could influence the political life of society. In addition to them, free non-citizens lived in the polis, who had slightly less rights - they did not vote, but did not perform military service, but otherwise everything was the same for them - they owned the land, they were protected by laws. Finally, slaves lived in the policies and had no rights.

Although the city-states were initially ruled by kings, they were soon replaced by oligarchic rule. The oligarchs, seeing that citizens were about to begin to demand power for themselves, led them; oligarchies in some places became the power of kings and geronts (Sparta), in others they became full-fledged democracies (Athens).

Signs that a city must have in order for it to be called a polis:

Independence, self-government (city-state);
An agora is a large open space located in the center of a city where people meet to socialize and trade.
The Acropolis is a fortress in which, instead of a temple, there is a palace or meeting hall.
the city should be drawn up according to the plan of Hippodamus of Miletus: many buildings for public meetings, temples, as well as houses built according to the canons of Greek architecture;
Temples and altars, sacred places dedicated to the patron (or several) of the city (for example, Athena in Athens); priests should not form a church or have special rights, but simply be ordinary members of society;
Gymnasiums, schools where they learn wisdom and do gymnastics;
Theaters;
Walls built around the city;
unique coins forged by the city itself;
colonies founded by the city;
active political life;
public presentation of government affairs: announcement of adopted laws, decrees, expenses;
absorption of adjacent villages and suburbs by the city;
stratification into classes: citizens, free non-citizens, visitors, slaves;

Slavery was very important in the policies. It, however, slowed down the development of science: why invent a fan if a slave can stand and wave a fan? The Greeks, however, could not become slaves, at least not at some point; the way there was open only to barbarians.

Absolutely powerless slaves.
Craftsmen.
Free traders.
Representatives of ethnic groups and foreigners who have few rights.

Draconian methods and reforms of Solon

Complete patriarchy.
The legality of bonded slavery.
Possibility of inevitable blood feud.
Very high property tax rate.

Activities of Cleisthenes

In the 5th century BC. Dion, thanks to its cult affiliation with Zeus and the Muses, especially revered in these parts, became the second capital of Ancient Macedonia. King Archelaus made it a cultural center comparable in importance to the main pearls of Greece - Delphi and Olympia - and combining the exclusivity of both.

Parnassus is a sacred mountain!

In this article we will talk about a sacred place for any Hellene of ancient times - Mount Parnassus. The ancient Greeks believed that the “navel of the earth” (in Greek “ὀμφᾰλόςγῆς” - “the center of the Earth”) is located only 150 kilometers from Athens in Phocidea on the slopes of Mount Parnassus. On the slopes of this mountain was located the famous Delphic sanctuary, which was considered the center of the entire Panhellenic world.

Knossos Palace.Crete

The Palace of Knossos, or more correctly Knossos, is the most famous Greek landmark, which is more than four thousand years old. It is located near the capital of the island of Crete, Heraklion. It seems incredible, but the legendary palace with the mythical creature the Minotaur was discovered only a hundred years ago, and until that moment there were only suspicions about the existence of an ancient architectural monument on this site.

Skiathos Island

The island of Skiathos (translated from Greek as “Shadow of Athos”) is a small island (49 km.2), which is the westernmost island of the Northern Sporades archipelago. The island is washed by the Aegean Sea and has more than 60 beaches to suit every taste: from large and crowded to wild and untouched by civilization.

There are no city-states in modern Greece, but in ancient times, on its current territory, there were many powerful associations called policies. A number of researchers believe that they cannot be called city-states in the established sense of the word, since many of them had quite extensive agricultural lands under their control. However, in fact, the policies corresponded to the concept, since powerful cities developed separately from each other, had their own political, economic and social structure, and also entered into friendly or military relations with each other. Historically, there was no large territorially and according to the population of the state. Instead, more than a hundred independent cities with small or relatively large adjacent territories were formed on the lands of the modern country. They contained not only pastures and agricultural land, but also smaller settlements. They were called policies and in ancient times retained significant features of tribal associations:

uniform property rights for all community members;
power is in the hands of the council of elders;
Only members of the community could be citizens, and foreigners and slaves did not have the right to participate in social and political life.

By the 7th–6th centuries. BC e. the situation began to change, and significant masses of free citizens rebelled against the supremacy of the aristocracy. This led to the emergence of democracy, the birthplace of which is Athens, where the power of the people, expressed in joint governance and decision-making on important issues, was most clearly represented. However, this not only did not stop the slave trade, but, on the contrary, raised this phenomenon to an extreme degree. Since now everyone could dispose of “living goods”, as well as have private property, including land, human trafficking and economic gain became the most important values. In some cities the situation was different: a leader with unlimited power was chosen from among the people, which marked the beginning of the formation of early tyranny in ancient Greek society.

Greek policies

Despite the fact that in modern historiography all the city-states of Greece are usually called poleis, their size and structure differed significantly:

Sparta - 8400 km2;
Attica - 2650 km2;
Corinth - 880 km2;
Samos - 470 km2;
Aegina - 85 km2.

An interesting example of poleis that cannot be called city-states in the traditional sense are Boeotia and Phocis. The first occupied an area of 2580 km2 and included a maximum of 20 independent micro-states, and Phocis with an area of 1650 km2 consisted of 22. Despite the fact that they were perceived as a single whole, those within the association had a certain degree of independence. At the same time, the modest size of the territories does not allow them to be classified as traditional states.
The largest city-states of Greece included:

Athens.
Sparta.
Miletus.
Corinth.
Thebes.
Olympia.
Chios.
Syracuse.
Mycenae.
Delphi.

Athens - the main city at all times

The current capital of Greece and at the same time the most famous city-state, since ancient times it has played a leading role and was considered a powerful association. Athens is called the cradle of European civilization, where the foundations of theater, sculpture, architecture, philosophy and, of course, democracy were born.

In the classical period, power was in the hands of the people, that is, all free citizens of the polis who had the right to participate in the social and political life of the entity. The supervisory and judicial bodies were called “Grand Juries” and had broad powers. Executive power was transferred to the philes, that is, representatives of certain social and professional groups, who formed a fairly large body called the “Council of Five Hundred”. Both authorities were elected by lot - everything was left to fate.

Thanks to this, any free citizen could become the owner of unlimited power, for example, obtain the position of central judge or supreme Athenian ruler. According to existing norms, it is a sacred duty
Any Athenian was protected by democratic rights and freedoms. At general meetings of the two bodies, issues of peace and war, social structure and distribution of benefits, as well as the deprivation or issuance of citizenship to specific individuals were resolved.

This was democracy in its purest form, which has never been realized to such a global and pure extent either before or since. Its principles and foundations have been transferred to the modern electoral system of most European countries, but with significant amendments and restrictions.

Sparta is a military entity with strict rules

Another famous city-state of the ancient world, Sparta, took the opposite path of development, which did not in any way reduce its achievements. Unlike the democracy of Athens, it was ruled by a ruling military regime. Sparta owes its appearance to the warlike Dorian tribe, famous for its cruelty. Having captured the Peloponnese, it turned the local residents into helot slaves who had no rights and freedoms. Throughout its development, tribal features were preserved here:

the power of the nominally ruling kings was minimal;
headed by a council of elders;
real power belonged to the meeting of the highest military ranks.

Despite the presence of a ruling elite, whose election took place without the participation of the bulk of the population, there were no significant class differences in material terms. The reason for this was the peculiar philosophy of life of the polis: the ascetic way of life was valued, which is why today it is called Spartan, simplicity in clothing and home arrangement, as well as unpretentiousness in food and entertainment. They ate together, using the same provisions provided for everyone, and did not use money at all, since they did not recognize or see the value in it.

The main goal and meaning of life of the Spartans was war and the conquest of new territories. From childhood, the young residents of Sparta were taught to be strong, dexterous, resilient and unpretentious, and instead of games, combat and military training prevailed here. Since the main goal of every man was considered to be the realization of the destiny of a brave warrior, all weak and sick boys, even in infancy or at a very early age, were killed or, as it went down in history, thrown from a cliff. The reason for this social policy was their unsuitability for war, and they were not suitable for anything else. It was impossible to send them to agricultural or other physically difficult work, since this was considered beneath the dignity of a Spartan: such work fell on the shoulders of helot slaves.

Miletus - the pearl of Ionia

Miletus, founded in the fourth millennium BC, was considered one of the richest and oldest Greek city-states. According to legend, it was founded by the mythological hero Miletus, who migrated from Crete, and the settlement flourished thanks to Thrasybulus, Thoas and Damasenor - one of the most famous tyrants in the ancient world. The association included adjacent lands, as well as about 80 remote colonies located along the Pontic coast and even in Egypt.

Miletus was located in the Asia Minor region: its ruins, where traces of linear writing and Minoan frescoes were found, can today be seen in the territory that belongs to Turkey. In ancient times, this region was called Ionia, which is why the famous historian Herodotus called Miletus the “Ionian pearl.”

Corinth - one of the three leading policies

Corinth's strategic location at the crossroads of trade routes played an important role in its rise and fall. During the heyday of the ancient world, he fought for leadership with Thebes and Athens, and in some periods even occupied a leading position. Thus, in the 6th century before the advent of the new era, the Corinthians were known as the largest producers and suppliers of classical ceramic tableware, including those decorated with the famous black-figure vase painting.

As in other large cities, the center of Corinth was the acropolis, rising on a hill, where there was a traditional agora - a market square, which was also used for meetings, as well as a temple to the goddess of love Aphrodite. It is not surprising that priestesses of love, whose number reached a thousand, gathered near him. They all wore their long black hair uncovered: it was believed that it had miraculous powers. Corinth is also famous for the fact that the famous Isthmian Games were held here: competitions in gymnastics, music, poetry and equestrian skills were organized in honor of the sea deity Poseidon.

Thebes - famous for numerous myths

Thebes was one of the three largest trade and economic associations of Ancient Greece. The fame and power of a city-state can be judged by how often it is mentioned in myths and tales. Going deep into the past, it is considered the birthplace of the god of wine Dionysus, and later Hercules was recorded as one of its indigenous inhabitants.

There is a well-known legend in which the story is about the military campaign of the kings of seven other policies against the powerful and influential Thebes. Also, the works of Orkhomenes of Minis speak of the constant rivalry of the region with Boeotia, which, despite its modest size, had the status of a multi-city association that could pose serious military competition. In addition, one of the most famous rulers of the ancient world lived here - King Oedipus, whose name today is used to name a very unusual psychological complex.

Olympia - birthplace of the Olympic Games

Located in the Peloponnese, Ancient Olympia could not boast of great trade, military and economic potential, but at all times it had the status of the most important religious, cultural and sports center. In ancient times, there were some of the most revered sanctuaries here, dedicated to the earth goddess Gaia and her son Kronos, who is mythologically considered the father of Zeus, the supreme god of thunder and the father of many gods of the ancient Greek pantheon.

The location of Olympia in the Peloponnese determined its role not only in ancient but also in modern history. The peninsula is named after the hero Pelops, who defeated Oenomaus, the king of Pisa, in a chariot race. It must be said that in ancient times it was one of the most popular sports, accessible only to the rich. Significant funds were invested in the purchase of horses and equipment of the vehicle. However, most of the money was spent on the maintenance of hired riders, and the loser, or rather his family, sometimes received more than the winner. The fact is that the competitions were fierce and were not about speed, but about the destructive force when chariots collided. Therefore, in most cases they ended in the death of one or more riders.

In honor of the events of antiquity, only chariot competitions were initially held at Olympia. Later, the disciplines were replenished with gymnastics, strength exercises, running - it was at the Olympia stadium that the standard marathon distance was created, as well as other competitions. Six months before they started, messengers scattered from Olympia all over Greece to inform and look for participants: killing a messenger or athlete was considered a grave sin, which is why military operations were almost always curtailed throughout the region during the games and preparations. It was this factor that formed the basis of the philosophy of the modern Olympic movement, which promotes the peaceful competition of athletes and the apolitical nature of the games.

Questions:

1. Polis of Ancient Greece.

2. Sparta.

3. Athens.

Polis of Ancient Greece.

The first states in Greece appeared in the 3rd millennium BC. Already by 2200 states are allocated on the island. Crete: Knossos, Mallia, Fest. The local leaders become kings before others ( basilei ). From the end of the 2nd millennium, the decline of the Cretan kingdom and the rise of Mycenae began. Back in the 1st third of the 2nd millennium BC, a number of Achaean tribes created an early class state in the form of kingdoms headed vanaktami . The remaining Hellenic tribes, due to the fact that communal institutions continued to play the main role in their social system, embarked on the path of forming a state, bypassing monarchical rule. This is how they appear policies.

First policy is a small state with a single city - the center of political, religious and cultural life. The polis is the totality of all citizens of a given city-state, which included all urban and rural settlements, arable and garden lands, mines and quarries. Slaves are the property of the policy. Usually the policy territory was small. The most extensive policy - Sparta(8400 sq. km). Attica– 2550 sq. km. All citizens living both in the city itself and on their land holdings or in villages on its rural territory were residents of the policy and were called by its name. Citizens of the polis community were only local natives who owned land plots.

The aristocratic leadership of archaic cities always resisted the writing of laws, because It was the aristocratic elite that concentrated in its hands the highest administrative functions, which relied on the priestly stratum. The writing of laws was itself the result of socio-economic developments that brought forward those slaveholding groups that were not necessarily aristocrats. These new groups, to one degree or another, limited the dominance of the aristocracy or sought equal rights with it, which was recorded in written legislation.

Sparta.

Ancient Sparta known primarily from the period of the Trojan War (1240 BC) Dorian conquest of the 12th century. BC. led to the capture of the Peloponnese by aliens. Exactly Dorians founded a new Sparta, which had only the name in common with the old one. During the Messenian Wars, the Spartan state finally took shape as a state of a slave-owning aristocracy, organized militarily in order to ensure the exploitation of the conquered population of Laconia (Achaeans) and Messenia (Dorians).

Only the Spartans themselves were considered full citizens of Sparta. During the conquest of Laconia, the conquered population received the name helots , which were considered the property of all Sparta - aristocratic "communities of equals", as the Spartiates called their corporation based on unbridled slavery. Part of the conquered population living in the least fertile areas was not converted into helots - perieki , were engaged in trade and crafts, because The Spartiates themselves were engaged in only one type of activity - military service. Each Spartiate had to be part of a group that dined together ( fidity), whose members had political rights.

The Spartan state retained remnants of military democracy in its organization. Aristotle believed that the political system of Sparta was modeled on the ancient Cretan system created by the legendary king Minos. The existing organization of the state and society was attributed to one person - the legendary royal guardian Lycurgus , who supposedly even met Homer at one time. After the name of the legendary legislator, Spartan law was called "Lycurgian Laws".

The military-state organization of Sparta was headed by two kings (archagetes), from the Dorian and Achaean dynasties. Kings retained the highest priestly and partially judicial functions. The kings were part of the council of elders (gerusia), which was the highest authority in Sparta. Gerusia consisted of 28 elected lifelong elders (geronts) at least 60 years of age, and 2 kings at least 30 years of age, or their guardians. The highest formal power belonged to the people's assembly ( appella ) – warriors from the age of 30. But the appella had no right to discuss questions prepared by the gerusia, but could only vote for or against. The highest executive body of government – college of 5 ephors , which appeared at one time as a body of control over the gerusia and kings, due to the growth of social contradictions in the Spartan state. The ephors were elected from among all the Spartiates for a period of 1 year, and had the highest control power, had the right to prosecute and judge any Spartiate, incl. Geronts and kings.

Athens.

Of all the Greek city-states, Athens reached the highest level of economic, political and cultural development. Legend of the feat Theseus, the legendary Basileus - the creator of the Athenian state, says that the Cretans managed to subjugate Attica, the weakest region of Hellas in the 1st half. 2nd millennium BC In the Archaic period, the population of Attica was divided into 4 phyla (tribes), divided into phratries and clans. At this time, a privileged layer of the clan nobility emerged - eupatrids , while other free citizens received the name demos - people.

The supreme governing body was the People's Assembly - ecclesia . Real power was concentrated in the hands of the council of elders - Areopagus , whose members consisted of the clan nobility. The Areopagus was the highest supervisory and judicial body, which concentrated the government of the state in its hands after the abolition of the institution of the Basilei (around the 8th century BC). After the expulsion of the basileus, senior officials began to be elected from among the eupatrides - archons who received executive power. Initially, the positions of archons were for life, then for 10 years and, finally, for 1 year. The Areopagus was replenished from among the archons who had served their term.

Government reforms in Greece clearly reflect the process of becoming the most perfect slave-owning democracy of the Ancient World, as well as the evolution of democratic legislation. In 621 Archon Draco wrote down the first laws, which have come down to us only in fragments. "Draconian Laws" They prohibited blood feud, approved private property, and introduced the death penalty for almost any violation of private property (the theft of vegetables). But they reduced collective punishment for crimes, defining the principle of individual responsibility for the first time. Due to the high severity of the standards, these laws were repealed after 30 years. In 594 archon Solon carried out a number of reforms:

Sisakhfiyya (shaking off the burden) - cancellation of debts (removal of debt stones from the land plots of the poor pledged for debts),

Prohibition of guaranteeing a debt by the person of the debtor, and the sale of a citizen into slavery for debts,

Reforming the state system: Tip 400 (bule): 400 representatives elected by clan phyla, where each of the 4 phyla sent 100 representatives. This is the main advisory body that prepared the decisions of the people's assembly. Ecclesia elected senior officials and heard their reports. Introduction of jury trials – helium.

Since 509 BC. Archon reforms were carried out in Athens Cleisthene:

- Council of Five Hundred: 50 people each from each phylum,

- College of 10 strategists at the head of the army. Strategists were elected 1 from each phylum,

- ostracism: every spring a special meeting identified people dangerous to the existing system.

After the victory in the Greco-Persian Wars of the 6th century. BC, reforms were carried out by Pericles, who for a long time held the post of 1st strategist (444-429), whose period of leadership is considered the heyday of Athenian democracy:

Gelieia (6000 people) was elected annually by lot from all 4 categories,

The selection of officials was carried out not by voting, but by lot, with the exception of strategists and treasurers,

The supreme body of power finally became the ecclesia, which included all male citizens over the age of 20, without qualification restrictions. Every citizen had the right to submit a bill to the People's Assembly and raise any issue

- adoption of a law there were 4 stages: 1.introduction of the bill to the people's assembly as a legislative initiative, which every full-fledged Athenian citizen had, 2.preliminary consideration by the Council of 500, 3.adoption of the bill by the people's assembly. 4. confirmation of the law of helium.