San Marino is located. San Marino: a miniature state with centuries-old traditions

The mechanism of pathogenesis of dysenteric amoebas has recently been associated with the superficially located vacuoles found in them and, in particular, with concentric membrane structures. Apparently, this formation functions at the moment of direct contact with the affected cell.

Amoebic dysentery is a serious disease confined mainly to areas with hot and warm climates. It is accompanied by severe diarrhea, profuse intestinal bleeding, fever, and acute pain in the abdominal area. Chronic amoebic dysentery, just like acute one, can be accompanied by severe complications in the form of abscesses of a number of internal organs.

Of great importance in the epidemiology of amoebiasis is the identification of cases of carriage. One of the main preventive measures is isolation of patients and monitoring of carriers of the pathogen. Infection occurs due to the introduction of amoeba cysts into the intestine with poorly washed vegetables and fruits. Poorly washed hands can often be a source of infection.

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How does a person get malaria?

When bitten, along with mosquito saliva, malarial plasmodia also penetrate into the human blood. Here they feed, grow, reproduce, destroy human blood cells and release toxic substances. When a mass release of protozoa from cells into the blood occurs, a patient with malaria begins to have an attack of fever - an increase in temperature, severe chills and weakness. The attacks recur every two to three days. This leads to anemia and exhaustion of the body.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed and implemented measures to combat malaria: screening the population for infection with malarial plasmodium, treating sick people, fighting malaria mosquitoes and eliminating their breeding grounds (temporary reservoirs, damp basements), carrying out preventive measures to prevent the spread of malaria.

Amebiasis is called the “disease of dirty hands.” Therefore, anyone traveling to countries in South Asia and Africa, where dysentery amoeba is common, must strictly observe hygiene rules. This will help protect yourself from amoebiasis and prevent the introduction of the pathogen into our country.

To prevent giardiasis, it is necessary to follow the simplest sanitary and hygienic rules (protect drinking water and food from contamination, observe personal hygiene rules).

What are the characteristics of single-celled animals?

The main feature of protozoa is their microscopic size and unicellularity. Moreover, each protozoan is an independent unicellular organism. It is characterized by basic life processes; growth, development, respiration, nutrition, reproduction. Protozoa have come a long way in evolutionary development and are currently represented by a variety of forms adapted to different living conditions.

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• grows and develops;
• reproduces;
• eats;
• breathes;
• moves.

Leishmania

• intestinal;
• dysenteric;
• oral

Balantidium coli

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Externally and internally, these organisms have exactly the same structure as all other single-celled organisms. They have only one structural unit, but it is capable of performing all the vital functions necessary for normal life. Namely:

• grows and develops;
• reproduces;
• eats;
• breathes;
• has excitability and irritability;
• moves.

They reproduce quite quickly, asexually. The mother cell simply, upon reaching maturity, splits into several daughter cells. They lead an independent lifestyle immediately after education.

The various representatives of the organisms under consideration can be classified as follows.

Leishmania

Settling inside the host cells, which for Leishmania are insects and mammals, including humans, they cause gradual death of the structure. In a person, an open gaping ulcer forms on the skin, in the place where Leishmania lives, which constantly rots. This disease is called rubber or Baghdad ulcer. Treatment is very difficult and lengthy, with surgical intervention.

Single-celled organisms of this group are transmitted by mosquitoes, which is why foci of leishmaniasis are found in tropical and subtropical countries.

Cysts are located in the large intestine and are therefore excreted with solid waste products. They become infected through dirt and water. Therefore, personal hygiene rules are especially important in the prevention of giardiasis.

This class includes different types amoeba:

• intestinal;
• dysenteric;
• oral

Unlike the form considered, intestinal amoeba is present in the body of almost every person and lives in harmony with it. It does not release toxic substances and does not penetrate the intestinal walls. Therefore, it does not cause any particular discomfort or harm to health.

The oral amoeba is an inhabitant of dental plaque and caries formations. Feeds on bacteria and can consume red blood cells. Its exact meaning for humans is not yet clear.

Balantidium coli

This organism is a representative of the class Ciliates. A fairly large oval single-celled organism that settles in the intestines of people. It is here that it takes hold and drills into the wall of the organ, causing bleeding, festering wounds. Cysts of this protozoan easily enter the bloodstream. This is how dispersal occurs throughout the body.

Infection with protozoan cysts occurs through contact of mucous membranes with dirty hands or when drinking raw water. The disease caused by these creatures is called balantidiasis. Accompanied by vomiting with blood, diarrhea, weakness, severe colic in the abdominal cavity.

The disease that is caused directly by Trichomonas is called trichomoniasis. It is sexually transmitted and threatens infertility in both men and women.

Signs of the disease in children

• general weakness;
• fatigue;
• pallor;
• headache;
• decreased appetite;
• poor sleep;
• irritability;
• loose stools;
• vomiting and others.

Another name for this kingdom, accepted in medicine and biology, is single-celled organisms.

These creatures consist of one cell of a certain shape, some can change it, the cell has organelles that maintain viability. Single-celled microorganisms have adapted to locomotion using cilia, flagella or pseudopods.

Getting rid of single-celled organisms is complicated by the fact that they are able to become covered with a protective shell (cyst) and wait out conditions unfavorable for their existence.

Classification of the simplest inhabitants of the human body

• endogenous (live in internal organs and systems);
• exogenous (choose the skin as their place of residence).

What diseases are caused by flagellates and ciliates?

Class Flagellates

• Leishmania causes cutaneous leishmaniasis (Pendian ulcer) and visceral leishmaniasis, the first manifests itself as constantly rotting ulcers on the body, and the second causes inflammation and bleeding. Leishmania enters the body through warm-blooded animals or a mosquito bite and affects the skin, heart, kidneys, blood, and bone marrow.
• Giardia, the causative agent of giardiasis, affects the mucous tissues of the intestines or gall bladder. After the defeat, people begin to suffer from asthma, mental disorders (most often depression), and the skin becomes dry. Giardia is common in countries with hot climates.
• Trichomonas (depending on the habitat - oral, intestinal and genital or urogenital), causes trichomoniasis. After infection, a person feels itching in the area of ​​the reproductive system, and pathological discharge from the genitals is observed. The biggest danger of this disease is the high risk of developing infertility.
• Trypanosoma causes African or American trypanosomiasis (the first is sleeping sickness, the second is Chags disease). It affects the lymph nodes (they enlarge), cerebrospinal fluid, blood and spleen, as a result of which the functioning of the spleen and liver is disrupted, the patient suffers from drowsiness and may die.

Ciliate class

What diseases are caused by rhizomes and sporozoans?

Sporozoan class

• The malarial plasmodium enters the blood and liver and causes malaria. Symptoms of the disease are fever, chills or fever, disorders of the central nervous system, and death is possible. It is transmitted through the bites of malaria mosquitoes and is transmitted by humans.
• The causative agent of toxoplasmosis is toxoplasma, which affects the central nervous system, digestive organs, muscle tissue and eyes. At first it occurs without symptoms, then disturbances in the functioning of certain organs are observed.

Class sardcode

Dysenteric amoeba is the causative agent of amoebiasis, affecting the mucous membrane of the large intestine, and less commonly, the bladder and skin. It may be asymptomatic, or it may signal itself with vomiting, diarrhea mixed with blood, and low-grade fever (up to 37.5 degrees). Symptoms appear 7-10 days after amoebas enter the body.

Less common are extraintestinal forms of the disease, which affect the liver, lungs or other organs. This disease is common in Asian and tropical countries.

Routes of infection

To prevent infection with unicellular organisms, a person must follow a number of simple rules:

• proper heat treatment of fish and meat, milk control;
• You can eat only those products that have passed sanitary inspection;
• washing fruits before eating, and simply dipping them in water is not enough; you need to wash them thoroughly and, if possible, pour boiling water over them;

It’s easy to follow these rules, the main thing is regularity.

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Forming cysts, amoebas leave the human body with undigested food debris. Light cysts spread easily. If you don't wash your hands and food, you can become infected.

Malarial plasmodium

If a person with malaria is bitten again by a malaria mosquito, the plasmodia will now be transferred from the person to the mosquito. Plasmodium reproduces sexually in the body of a mosquito.

Malaria is common in Africa. This is a very dangerous disease. Malaria is fought, among other things, by destroying malaria-carrying mosquitoes.

Trypanosomes

The vector of sleeping sickness is the tsetse fly. This disease is typical for tropical Africa. Sleeping sickness develops in two stages: in the first weeks a person is tormented by fever and pain, after a month or more drowsiness sets in, disturbances in sleep and coordination, and changes in consciousness. The disease is easier to treat in the first stage.

Giardia

A person becomes infected with giardiasis by eating unwashed food containing Giardia cysts. Having emerged from the cyst, lamblia attaches itself to the intestines and feeds on digested food.

Leishmania

Exist different kinds leishmaniasis associated with damage to various tissues of the body. One of them is the skin disease Pendensky ulcer.

Coccidia

Coccidia include the genus Toxoplasma. Their representatives cause such a widespread disease in humans as toxoplasmosis. A person becomes infected from pets or poorly prepared meat food. Toxoplasma affects many organs, including the nervous system.

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TYPE OF CNIDOSPORIDIA (CNIDOSPORIDIA)

More recently, these organisms were identified as one of the classes of sporozoans (Apocomplexa), but are now separated into a separate type, since they do not have alternation of merogony and sporogony, in addition, they have special spores with valves that provide buoyancy and stinging capsules that allow them to attach to the host's intestinal wall.

Microsporidia type.

Externally and internally, these organisms have exactly the same structure as all other single-celled organisms. They have only one structural unit, but it is capable of performing all the vital functions necessary for normal life. Namely:

• grows and develops;
• reproduces;
• eats;
• breathes;
• has excitability and irritability;
• moves.

They reproduce quite quickly, asexually. The mother cell simply, upon reaching maturity, splits into several daughter cells. They lead an independent lifestyle immediately after education.

The various representatives of the organisms under consideration can be classified as follows.

Leishmania

Settling inside the host cells, which for Leishmania are insects and mammals, including humans, they cause gradual death of the structure. In a person, an open gaping ulcer forms on the skin, in the place where Leishmania lives, which constantly rots. This disease is called rubber or Baghdad ulcer. Treatment is very difficult and lengthy, with surgical intervention.

Single-celled organisms of this group are transmitted by mosquitoes, which is why foci of leishmaniasis are found in tropical and subtropical countries.

Cysts are located in the large intestine and are therefore excreted with solid waste products. They become infected through dirt and water. Therefore, personal hygiene rules are especially important in the prevention of giardiasis.

This class includes different types of amoeba:

• intestinal;
• dysenteric;
• oral

Unlike the form considered, intestinal amoeba is present in the body of almost every person and lives in harmony with it. It does not release toxic substances and does not penetrate the intestinal walls. Therefore, it does not cause any particular discomfort or harm to health.

The oral amoeba is an inhabitant of dental plaque and caries formations. Feeds on bacteria and can consume red blood cells. Its exact meaning for humans is not yet clear.

Balantidium coli

This organism is a representative of the class Ciliates. A fairly large oval single-celled organism that settles in the intestines of people. It is here that it takes hold and drills into the wall of the organ, causing bleeding, festering wounds. Cysts of this protozoan easily enter the bloodstream. This is how dispersal occurs throughout the body.

Infection with protozoan cysts occurs through contact of mucous membranes with dirty hands or when drinking raw water. The disease caused by these creatures is called balantidiasis. Accompanied by vomiting with blood, diarrhea, weakness, severe colic in the abdominal cavity.

The disease that is caused directly by Trichomonas is called trichomoniasis. It is sexually transmitted and threatens infertility in both men and women.

Signs of the disease in children

• general weakness;
• fatigue;
• pallor;
• headache;
• decreased appetite;
• poor sleep;
• irritability;
• loose stools;
• vomiting and others.

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Structural and physiological characteristics.

Although the body of protozoa consists of a single cell, they are complete organisms that coordinately carry out all vital functions, including nutrition, excretion of waste products and reproduction. Most protozoa are heterotrophs, i.e., like animals, they feed on ready-made organic substances present in the environment. However, some species contain the pigment chlorophyll and, like plants, are able, using solar energy, to form (photosynthesize) organic substances (carbohydrates) from inorganic ones, i.e. eat autotrophically. In this regard, protozoa were classified either as plants or animals, or as a separate group. One of the modern classification schemes places protozoa, along with unicellular algae and some other organisms, in the kingdom of protista (Protista), within which protozoa are considered an independent subkingdom.

Main groups.

Ecology and interactions with the environment.

Protozoa, like any living beings, need energy. Photosynthetic species belong to the so-called. producers: they “bind” inorganic carbon (carbon dioxide), turning it into organic compounds, which serve as food for them. Photosynthesis carried out by autotrophs (not necessarily protozoa) indirectly provides food for all heterotrophs (consumers) that consume finished organic matter. Most protozoa are beneficial because they are the staple food of small animals at the base of food chains leading to larger creatures, including humans. Ciliates that live in the rumen (one of the sections of the stomach) of ruminant mammals, such as cows and sheep, are vital for them, since they are mainly responsible for digesting the fiber (cellulose) contained in the grass they eat.

Toxic water blooms.

Some photosynthetic protozoans, particularly a number of reddish-pigmented dinoflagellates (thin-walled marine forms), sometimes cause toxic blooms called red tides. This can lead to massive fish deaths and illnesses in people who eat poisoned seafood.

Microanatomy.

The structure of a protozoan cell depends on the lifestyle of the species and its physiological adaptations. One or more double membrane-enclosed nuclei containing chromosomes are always present. In ciliates, nuclei are usually of two types: one large macronucleus and one or more small micronuclei. Some protozoa have multinucleate cells. Vacuoles are usually present - spaces separated from the rest of the cytoplasm by a membrane, varying in size and functions: they serve to digest food, accumulate and remove liquid and solid metabolic products, and even for the settlement of symbiotic algae, providing their hosts - protozoa - with photosynthesized organic matter. Pigment granules are found in the cytoplasm or vacuoles of some species. Plastids are specialized intracellular structures (organelles) containing pigments associated with the process of photosynthesis. Their shape and number depend on the species, therefore they are important classification characteristics. Some protozoa have “shooting” organelles (extrusomes) under the outer membrane, for example, mucocysts that secrete mucus and trichocysts that emit thin filaments. Perhaps they are used for protection. Flagella (from one to many depending on the species) are thread-like locomotor organelles with a complex system of internal longitudinal microtubules. In structure and principle of operation, they differ significantly from the formations of the same name in bacteria. Cilia are similar to flagella, but are shorter and always form coordinated complexes on the cell. The nature of their distribution over its surface serves as an important classification feature.

Some protozoa are covered with organic or mineralized scales, shells and shells, varying in structure and composition, or have a rigid intracellular skeleton, usually a complex lattice structure.

Physiology.

Protozoa photosynthesize organic matter (autotrophs) or absorb organic matter from the environment (heterotrophs), or use both methods of nutrition (mixotrophs). Heterotrophs either absorb solutes from the cell surface (osmotrophs) or ingest solid food through various mechanisms (phagotrophs), including other organisms (including protozoa), sometimes pursuing prey for this. Solid waste products are removed from the cell in environment by merging the vacuoles containing them with the outer membrane, sometimes in a specialized area of ​​it (cell powder, cytoproct). Excess water with some dissolved metabolic waste products is actively pumped out by contractile vacuoles.

Respiration of protozoa can be anaerobic (oxygen-free) or aerobic (requiring an oxygen environment). For obligate anaerobes, oxygen is harmful, and in an environment rich in it they die. Some obligate anaerobic protozoa in oxygen-poor aquatic habitats respire with the help of symbiotic bacteria. The intensity of respiration is directly proportional to temperature and also depends on the type of substrate being metabolized, i.e. molecules broken down to produce energy, and taxonomic group.

Reproduction.

Protozoa can reproduce asexually (a cell divides into two or more daughter cells) and sexually (with the participation of two cells), sometimes alternating these methods depending on the stage of the life cycle. During sexual reproduction, sex cells (gametes) merge or a temporary union of two ordinary cells occurs (conjugation), leading to the exchange of hereditary material between them. If the merging gametes are almost identical in appearance, we speak of isogamy; if one of them is noticeably larger, we speak of anisogamy.

Life cycles

Protozoa are very diverse and sometimes very complex. For example, some foraminifera exhibit alternation of generations with two or more different forms during each reproductive cycle. Free-living slime mold Physarum polucephalum It has an even more complex life cycle, including sexual and asexual reproduction. During the growth and feeding stage, this organism is a multinucleated plasmodium (a large amoeboid structure) that captures food through special channels on its lower surface. Under unfavorable conditions, for example, a decrease in environmental humidity, it contracts and divides into many small spherical cells, each of which secretes organic matter that hardens into a protective shell: a fragile yellowish mass is formed, called sclerotium (resting phase). During rehydration, the membranes dissolve, the cells absorb water and fuse again into the amoeboid plasmodium. Under other conditions, it forms sporangia, which release haploid (containing half the normal number of chromosomes) spores. They germinate into amoeboid “vagrants”, which turn into flagellated gametes, and the gametes merge (isogamy) into diploid (i.e. with a full set of chromosomes) zygotes. These, in turn, can develop directly into plasmodium or give rise to a resting cyst, from which it will then be released, completing the life cycle. The causative agent of tropical malaria Plasmodium falciparum The life cycle, in addition to the alternation of generations, includes a change of hosts - humans and mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. see also MALARIA.

Classification.

One of the modern classification schemes for protozoa is given below down to the subtype level. It is quite possible that in the future it will be revised taking into account new electron microscopic and molecular genetic data.

Subkingdom Protozoa

Phylum Sarcomastigophora (flagellate and amoeboid forms)

Subphylum Mastigophora (flagellates)

Subphylum Opalinata (polyflagellates)

Subphylum Sarcodina (amoeboid)

Phylum Labyrinthomorpha (cells enclosed in common branching mucous tubes)

Phylum Ciliophora (ciliates, or ciliates)

Subphylum Postciliodesmatophora (cilia are paired, oral cilia are often arranged in 1–3 spiral rows)

Subphylum Rhabdophora (corolla of double cilia around the mouth)

Subphylum Cyrtophora (usually with abundant oral cilia)

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Movement functions can be performed by flagella, cilia, and pseudopodia intended for this purpose. The main process (nutrition) is carried out in several ways:

• ingestion by cellular mouth;
• flow around pseudopodia (pseudopods);
• absorption by the membrane surface.

The reproduction cyst is characterized by the formation of a thin temporary shell, necessary for the protozoa for a short period of division.

Flagellates:

For example, Giardia, Leishmania, Trichomonas, Trypanosomes. They have an elongated oval or pear-shaped body. They can have from 1 to 8 flagella - thin cytoplasmic projections consisting of the finest fibrils. They move forward with a flagellum, as if “screwing” into the space in front of them. They feed both by absorbing ready-made nutrients and by absorbing them through the membrane. Reproduction occurs in most cases by simple division into two daughter cells. Flagellates can live in colonies of up to 10,000 individuals;

Sporozoans

Ciliates

For example, balantidia. Ciliates are characterized by movement using cilia. There are two nuclei in the body's cell: the large nucleus controls all vital processes, the small one plays the main role in the sexual side of the existence of protozoa. Reproduction occurs by dividing the cell in half; in most representatives of the species this occurs daily, in some - several times a day. Food is driven into a special recess (“cell mouth”) by the movement of cilia; inside the cell it is processed by the digestive vacuole, and undigested residues are removed outside;

Sarcodaceae

For example, dysenteric amoeba. It does not have a permanent shape, it forms many pseudopods, with the help of which it moves and captures food. Propagated by simple division. It can exist in several forms: tissue, luminal, precystic. The tissue form lives only in the intestines of a sick person. Other forms can also occur in the host’s body.

The main symptoms are attacks of fever, joint pain, vomiting, anemia, and convulsions. An enlarged spleen may be observed. Malaria is characterized by a relapsing course of the disease, with periods of dormancy and exacerbation. Depending on the type of pathogen, forms are distinguished: three-day, four-day and tropical. The disease is widespread in Africa and South Asia. For many centuries, as today, the main remedy for treatment remains quinine, a drug made from the bark of the cinchona tree. Despite the creation of synthetic analogues, deaths from infection occur in areas without access to modern medical care;

Amebiasis (dysenteric amoebiasis)

Giardiasis

Leishmaniasis

Trichomoniasis

Balantidiasis

Toxoplasmosis

Sleeping sickness

Chagas disease

Routes of infection

In addition to the main methods of infection, infection can occur in several other ways that are much less common:

There are a number of products that are natural immunostimulants (garlic, ginger, broccoli, carrots, green tea), which, when consumed in a balanced manner, can provide the body with invaluable assistance in increasing immunity.

The question of which country the Republic of San Marino is located within most often remains relevant for Russians, because we know so little about it. The state, despite its miniature size, has rich history and culture. Today the Republic of San Marino is, but this is far from the only reason why it is worth visiting this country.

Founding of San Marino

The state, which today is called the “Republic of San Marino,” was founded on long-inhabited territory. Archaeological excavations show that people settled here in the last millennium. But the documented history of the country begins in 298, when, according to local legend, Saint Marinus, fleeing persecution, decided to retire from the world to Mount Titano. The saint came from Dalmatia, where he was persecuted for his religious views. He hired himself to work as a stonemason in the Rimini area, and then looked for a mountain for solitude, on which he hollowed out a cave as his cell. Marino’s righteous life began to attract pilgrims to him, and a community gathered around him, then a monastery was organized, which in the country is considered Starting point history and the source of the country's name.

There is documentary evidence that in the 6th century there was an autonomous monastery here. Over the course of 7 centuries, it experienced raids by different tribes: Saracens, Magyars, but retains its independence. This is facilitated by the extremely convenient location for defense; in addition, the monks constantly worked on the defense capability of their monastery, they built fortress walls and made ramparts.

Geography

Today the Republic of San Marino is surrounded by the state of Italy. It is located on the southwestern slope mountain range Monte Titano. 80% of the country's territory is occupied by mountains. Monte Titano has three peaks, each of which has long been inhabited. The Apennine foothill plain is suitable for agriculture and has a subtropical, Mediterranean climate. Winter in San Marino is quite cold, especially February, when temperatures reach zero. Summers are mild and hot in August-September. The mountainous parts are always cooler than the plains. The area of ​​the country is about 60 square meters. km. San Marino is a republic living in rather harsh conditions. Life in the mountainous region is not easy, but it made it possible local residents develop a special character and create a unique culture.

Story

Gradually, the monastery buys adjacent lands from peasants and expands its holdings. An independent state emerges, which is constantly under threat of being absorbed by stronger and larger countries. In the 13th century, San Marino became involved in the confrontation between the Ghibellines and the Guelphs, taking the side of the former, the country aroused the wrath and curse of Pope Innocent the Fourth.

San Marino, a republic that constantly gave rise to the illusion of its easy capture, was subjected to severe pressure and attempts at subjugation from papal Rome for several centuries. To withstand such attacks, the country had to show miracles of diplomacy.

In the first half of the 15th century, the Republic entered into an alliance with Alfonso the Fifth, which allowed it to retain the castle of Fiorentino. In 1462, Pope Pius II resorted to helping San Marino in the war against Malatesta. The successful outcome of such an alliance brought the republic power over three villages.

In the 16th century, Rome made several attempts to impose taxes on San Marino, even resorting to force, but the republic retained its independence. In 1543, the papal army sent to capture the republic got lost in the dense forests of Monte Titano, this bloodless victory is still a public holiday in the country.

The 18th and 19th centuries passed in the same persistent struggle against external pressure. But even Napoleon offered a friendly alliance to San Marino. The Congress of Vienna did not touch the tiny country either. The country's territory became a place of refuge for political emigrants, whose extradition the government did not allow and zealously defended against attempts to take them by force. The Republic was able to maintain its sovereignty during attempts to incorporate it into its dominions by Pope Pius the Ninth in the 1860s. During the world wars, San Marino remained neutral, although this was not easy.

In World War II, the country was mistakenly bombed by British aircraft in 1944. In July of the same year, German troops were able to briefly occupy the territory of the republic; the help of the British arrived in time and helped drive out the invaders. After this, the country manages to maintain its independence to this day.

Culture

Residents of the country proudly declare that the Republic of San Marino is the smallest country in the world, and this awareness is the basis of their worldview. National traditions and self-identity are carefully preserved here, although the influence of Italy surrounding the state is extremely great.

The main value of the people is family. Weddings and christenings of children are very lavish here, and the divorce statistics are very low. Residents of the dwarf state are well aware of how important loved ones are in the fight against the aggressive outside world, so the feeling of unity here is very high. The intimate nature of the country allows national holidays to be turned into almost universal feasts; tables the length of streets are set here, at which all residents sit.

There are a lot of national festivals here, which date back to ancient Roman history. The Middle Ages Festival in July becomes a national celebration: people dress up, dance, go out in processions, and cook national dishes. To understand the essence of the culture of this state, it is worth remembering which country the Republic of San Marino is located within - Italy. Therefore, the culture is extremely similar to the culture of a powerful neighbor; it is only seasoned with notes of great pride in one’s country.

Republic today

Considering government structure countries, one might wonder: Is San Marino a republic or a monarchy? The answer is surprising: San Marino is the oldest republic in the world. Even during the collapse of Ancient Rome, this territory began to be governed by an elected regent, and this continues to this day. How did this miniature country manage to maintain its social structure surrounded by such strong states with monarchical rule that tried to seize all the territories around? Mystery. But even today the country is governed by two regents elected for six months. Considering the number of inhabitants of the country (32 thousand people), it can be assumed that almost every person has a chance to be a regent once in their life.

San Marino is a member of the European Union, but has the right to issue a certain number of euro coins with its own symbols. The country's economy is mainly provided by financial sectors: banks, insurance, trade. Tourism is also an important industry. More than 3 million people come here every year. There are about 30 settlements in the country, the largest is the city of Serravalle, where about 10 thousand people live. The official language of San Marino is Italian. To visit, you need to apply for a Schengen visa; the country does not have its own airport; the nearest air harbors are in Italy, for example, in Rimini.

Attractions

Today the Republic of San Marino, whose sights are of great interest to tourists, is one of the record-breaking countries for the number of historical and cultural monuments per square meter. The state has managed to preserve several important buildings since the Middle Ages. The tourist route necessarily includes a visit to the fortress on Monte Titano, state palace, the neoclassical Basilica del Santo, built in 1838 by the architect Antonio Serra, streets of the old town. The entire city center and Monte Titano are protected as UNESCO monuments. For particularly inquisitive travelers, San Marino has several temples, fortresses and interesting remains of ancient buildings. Of particular interest are the ancient gate of San Francesco from the 14th century, through which foreigners entered the country, the Church of Santo Pieve - one of the first monuments of Christianity, the Church of San Francesco with the adjacent monastery, which were built in the 15th century. The country has historically united 9 administrative units, each of which still has its own medieval castle.

Fortresses

San Marino, a republic that has fought for independence throughout its history, has unique defensive structures. Once upon a time, there were three circles of fortress walls on Mount Monte Titano, which began to be built back in the 10th century. Today, some of the belts have not survived, but there are defensive walls around the peaks. Monte Titano has three peaks, each with defensive towers and fortress walls. Rocca Guaita (the first tower) appeared in the 11th century; the fortress surrounding it consists of two rows of fortress walls, a bell tower, and watchtowers.

Today the fortress can be explored; its walls offer magnificent views of the plain. Castello della Cesta - the second tower - was built in the 13th century on the highest peak of the mountain. The preservation of the fortress is very good, the spirit of the Middle Ages reigns here, and there is also a museum of ancient weapons on the territory. The third peak is decorated with the Montale fortress, built at the beginning of the 14th century. This attraction can only be viewed from the outside.

State Palace

The Republic of San Marino, whose photos amaze with the spirit of antiquity, is proud not only of its defensive structures. Stands on Freedom Square magnificent Palazzo Publico, Government Palace. It was designed by the architect Francesco Azzurri at the end of the 19th century in the neo-Gothic style. The palace looks very majestic, with beautiful views from its walls. The interiors of the palace are made in medieval style. Despite the fact that today the government of the country meets in the palace, you can get here with excursions.

Things to do in San Marino

The most popular shopping area in the region is the Republic of San Marino. Italy, or rather its residents, loves to go shopping to the tiny state on weekends. This is due to the fact that San Marino has tax incentives and familiar goods can cost much less. Therefore, tourists most often spend their free time in shops. Here you can buy perfumes and excellent leather goods (bags, shoes, clothes) at prices lower than in Italy. There are several large ones here shopping centers, which offer significant discounts on many products. Of particular interest is visiting local markets, where you can try delicious and very fresh local cheeses, eat freshly caught fish, taste wines and sausages and buy edible souvenirs to take home.

Fans of excursions can travel with a guide through several settlements of the country, see other castles besides the capital ones, and get acquainted with the life of ordinary Sanmarinians. For the most daring, helicopter rides over the country are offered. You can also devote your free time to walks, intricate streets, Mountain peaks, the locks are simply ideal for leisurely inspections. To get to the top, you can use the cable car. You should also take time to watch the changing of the guard at the Government Palace.

San Marino is a country of holidays; numerous festivals of art, cooking, ethnic music, and crafts are held here. Therefore, there is never a problem of what to do.

Museums

For curious tourists The Republic of San Marino, Italy offers many museums. This most interesting museum torture, where a collection of torture instruments is collected, museums of wax figures, curiosities, luxury Ferrari cars, which contains 250 models of cars of this brand different years. AND main museum country, telling about the history of the state. For art lovers, the Pinacoteca San Francesco offers a good collection of 14th century paintings and a unique collection of religious objects

Kitchen

The Republic of San Marino in Italy, like its more famous neighbor, is famous for its culinary scene. The cuisine here is very reminiscent of Italian; you can try your own versions of pasta, flatbread “a la pizza”. It is impossible to stay hungry in San Marino; there are a huge number of restaurants, cafes and food outlets. street food. The obligatory program includes thick bean soup with bacon, Titano cake, and sweet bread with raisins soaked in aniseed vodka. The country is famous for its unique honey, which has an inimitable taste, and local olive oil.

Helpful information

San Marino is a very tiny republic, but the transport here works great, although the center is given over to pedestrians. You can leave your car at numerous locations. It is customary to pay everywhere in the country. bank cards, although cash is accepted very willingly. To enter the country you will need a passport and medical insurance. People usually buy leather goods, ceramics, jewelry, forged metal products, olive oil in beautiful bottles, and local wine as souvenirs in San Marino.

San Marino is a very calm, friendly and safe country. There are almost no unpleasant incidents here, but caution does not hurt, as cases of pickpocketing and fraud in trading do occur.

The content of the article

SAN MARINO, The Republic of San Marino (officially the Most Serene Republic of San Marino), a state in Southern Europe. Located on the Apennine Peninsula in the northeastern foothills of the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines and surrounded by Italian territory (the regions of Marche and Emilia-Romagna). Geographical coordinates: 43° 46´ N, 12° 25´ E the length of the borders is 39 km. From southwest to northeast the country stretches for 12.6 km, and from southeast to northwest – for 8.6 km. Area 61.2 sq. km.

Population 32,140 (July 2011 estimate). Many Sanmarinos live in Italy and France, as well as North America.

Nature.

The country's terrain is low-mountain. The highest point is Mount Titano (755 m); it offers a panoramic view of the surrounding plains and coastline Adriatic Sea, located 19 km away. The lowest point is Torrente Auza (55 m). The country's territory is characterized by terraces and small ravines with steep overhanging edges.

Groundwater gives rise to small rivers and streams flowing into the Adriatic Sea. Short rivers overflow rapidly during periods of rain and snowmelt, and during dry summers they partially dry up, which complicates the water supply problem. Three relatively large rivers– Ausa, Marano and San Marino (a tributary of the Italian river Marrechia). In the San Anastasio Valley there are sulfur-iron mineral springs.

The country's climate is subtropical Mediterranean: long, fairly dry, hot and sunny summers, especially on the plains, and warm, rainy winters, when cyclones often sweep over the territory of San Marino. IN winter period Sometimes snow falls, sometimes quite significant, with drifts. average temperature the warmest month is July in the country + 25° C, the coldest month is January – minus 1–4° C. The number of frosty days per year is 15–20.

In winter, the Adriatic coast is exposed to cold northern and northeastern winds (“bora”), which causes snowfall and cloudy weather in winter. Sometimes the northeast wind (“grekale”) blows. In summer, breezes blow on the plain, and in the mountainous part of the republic - mountain-valley winds. The average annual precipitation is 890 mm.

Fertile brown subtropical and humus-carbonate soils and Mediterranean red soils predominate. There are also mountain brown forest soils and soils of lower altitude zones. Sanmarinos fight erosion by afforesting slopes and terracing, and also regulate mountain streams.

The vegetation cover has been greatly modified by humans. Ancient oak and chestnut forests have been cut down almost entirely; hard-leaved evergreen trees and shrubs (holm and cork oaks, maquis and garigue thickets), and coastal pine have been preserved. The altitudinal zonation of vegetation is characteristic. On the lower parts of the slopes and in the foothills they predominate cultural landscapes(olive plantations, fields, vineyards, gardens), which in the north in some places up to a height of 500–600 m are combined with preserved groves of holm and cork oak, Aleppo pine, pine and shrubs. At an altitude of more than 500 m, forests of oak and chestnut begin with an admixture of maple, elm and ash.

The flora of San Marino has about 4 thousand species. Evergreen plants here include cork oak, lemon, cypress, pine, laurel, myrtle, pomegranate and olive, pistachio and magnolia, wild strawberry trees, viburnum laurel, boxwood, butcher's broom, southern buckthorn, southern juniper, blue-green agaves, and prickly pears. Blackberries and mulberries grow in abundance. Quite a lot of bright colors. Of the fruit trees, the most important are olives, figs and chestnuts.

Among the animals preserved in San Marino are rodents (squirrels, dormice, field mice and rats), chamois, roe deer, badger, marten and weasel. There are wild boars, hares, rabbits and foxes. Lots of cicadas. The rivers and streams are home to pike, tench, chub, trout and grayling.

Political system.

San Marino is considered the oldest existing republic in the world. The official date of its founding is September 3, 301. The current constitution was adopted on October 8, 1600, but since then it has been amended and supplemented many times. Since ancient times, the highest body of the republic was considered the Arengo - a meeting of heads of families; later, when the development of laws by such a large circle of people became difficult, its legislative rights were transferred to the Great General Council. However, Arengo retains the power to change legal codes and file petition bills. According to tradition, this is done on the first Sunday after April 1 and October 1. The Council is required to consider these petitions within six months.

From the beginning of the 17th century. Arengo was virtually deprived of power and did not gather for more than three hundred years. Only on March 25, 1906, this body regained its powers and decided that members of the Great General Council should be elected by popular secret vote. Currently, San Marino has universal suffrage for citizens over 18 years of age living in the country. Women gained voting rights in 1960.

The Parliament of the Republic is the Grand General Council. It consists of 60 members who are elected by popular vote for a term of five years using a proportional system. The Council exercises legislative, administrative and legal powers. Its competence includes the adoption of laws and regulations, ratification of treaties and agreements, appointment to government positions and diplomatic posts. In addition, he has the right of pardon, amnesty and rehabilitation, grants citizenship, honorary titles and orders, and controls the state budget. The Grand General Council elects the Captain Regents, the State Congress, the Council of 12, the Government Comptrollers and the Regency Comptrollers.

The functions of the head of state are performed by two captain-regents. They are elected by the Grand General Council from among its members every 6 months, take office on April 1 and October 1, represent the Sanmarinian state and are the heads of the executive branch. According to custom, one of them must come from the city, the other from the countryside. The position is considered an honorary duty for which no salary is paid. At the end of their tenure, captains-regents are required to submit a report on their activities, and each citizen can publicly voice a complaint about an unfair decision. To investigate their activities, there is a special judicial body - the “Regency Consortium”.

The Captain Regents preside over the Great General Council, the Council of 12 and the State Congress. They work strictly collectively and are obliged to make all decisions together, each of them has the right to veto the decisions of the other. The Captain Regent can be re-elected to this post only after 3 years.

The government of the republic is the State Congress, consisting of 10 members. This body was formed in 1945 as a result of the merger of the Economic Assembly and the Council on Foreign Affairs. According to the law of May 15, 1945, it exercises executive power jointly with the captains-regents. All members of the Congress are elected by the Great General Council for a term of 5 years. A special role is played by two secretaries of state - internal affairs and on foreign and financial affairs.

Legal proceedings - civil and criminal - are partly carried out by Italian magistrates. Appeals are first sent to an Italian judge. The country's highest judicial body is the Council of 12. Its powers were defined by the law of 1923 and included civil, criminal and administrative functions. The Council also serves as a "third instance" court. He received the right to give permission to foreign citizens to purchase real estate on the territory of the republic, recognize legal entities and allow them to change property rights. An administrative tribunal was created in 1989. Minor cases are handled by the local court. Prison sentences longer than 6 months are served in Italian prisons.

The territory of the republic is divided into 9 districts - “castles”. Each of them is governed by a commission headed by a captain elected from among its members for 2 years.

Political parties.

After World War II, a multi-party system developed in San Marino.

Christian Democratic Party(CDA) is the largest in the country. Founded on April 9, 1948, modeled and influenced by the Italian Christian Democratic Party; proclaims the values ​​of democracy, freedom, pluralism and solidarity. The party was created by San Marino Catholics, supported by the church leadership and adheres to a center-right orientation. Member of the European People's Party and the International of Christian Democratic Parties. Until 1957, the Christian Democratic Party was in opposition to the left-wing government of the country; in 1957–1973 it ruled San Marino in a coalition with the Social Democrats, and in 1973–1977 with the Socialists. In 1978–1986, the Christian Democrats again went into opposition. In 1986–1992, the Christian Democratic Party formed governments together with the communists, and since 1992, again in alliance with the socialists. In the general elections in June 2001, the party collected 41% of the vote and won 25 of the 60 seats on the Grand General Council. Leader - Giovanni Lonfernini (Captain Regent 2003–2004).

Sanmarino Socialist Party(SMSP) – founded in 1892. Declared its commitment to the principles of international socialism, its intention to modernize political system country and improve the socio-economic living conditions of the citizens of San Marino. SMSP is guided by the values ​​of representative democracy, freedom and human rights, solidarity (especially between different generations and towards the socially weak), social justice and equal opportunities. Advocates reforms to continually improve social and democratic institutions and rejects ready-made social models. Sanmarino socialists call for the development of a “modern economy” based on “dialectical cooperation” between different parts of society, the absence of discrimination, the provision of equal opportunities to workers and all citizens, a combination of individual competition and the growth of social welfare. They strive to provide jobs for everyone. SMSP is part of the Socialist International.

From 1945–1957, socialists ruled the country in coalition with the communists; in 1955, the right wing broke away from them, forming the Social Democratic Party (reunited with the SMSP in 1987; the Socialist Unity Party, which separated from the Social Democrats in 1976, merged with the SMSP in 1990). In 1957–1969, the SMSP was in opposition. In subsequent years, it was part of the ruling coalition along with the Christian Democrats (1969–1977), the Communists and Social Democrats (1978–1986) and again with the Christian Democratic Party (since 1992). In the general elections, the socialists were supported by 24.2% of voters. The party has 15 seats on the Grand General Council.

Democratic Party(PD) - formed in the early 2000s on the basis of the Progressive Democratic Party, which, in turn, arose in 1990–1991 as a result of the transformation of the Sanmarinsky Communist Party that had existed since 1921. It is a social-democratic organization that declared itself the result of a unification of “left-wing forces and personalities from various cultural and political circles”, based on the values ​​of freedom, solidarity, equality and peace and inspired by the “culture of European democratic reformism”. The PD strives for an “open and responsible society” and the modernization of the country. To this end, she considers it necessary for San Marino to join the European Union, the adoption of a new Constitutional Charter for the rule of law and the implementation of public service reform. In the economic field, Democrats advocate the introduction of new technologies, equal rights for workers and entrepreneurs, free initiative, demonopolization of key industries and increased employment. The party believes that possible forms of privatization should be the result of public consent. Proposes encouraging the development of a social insurance system, economic self-organization, cooperatives and forms of activity not aimed at making profits. While insisting on improving the “welfare state,” the PoD, at the same time, calls for strict control over government spending.

People's Alliance of San Marino Democrats(NASD) is a centrist party formed in 1993. The political philosophy of the NASD is based on the idea of ​​a crisis in the “traditional party model” and the intention to create “an association of free individuals, without party cards, with simple rules, around high values... and a realistic program.” He advocates reform of state institutions with a clearer separation of powers, expansion of the practice of referendums, etc. NASD – for the combination of a “healthy market economy” with the principles of solidarity and dignity of labor. The state, according to the party, should give up managing the economy and focus on providing necessary services based on economic efficiency criteria.

Sanmarino communist revival(SKV) – left-wing political party, created in 1991 on the basis of the left wing of the former Sanmarinsky Communist Party. In ideology and political line it is similar to the Italian Communist Renaissance Party. (see ITALY).

Sanmarine National Alliance(SMNA) - an extreme right-wing party that united former neo-fascists. Ideologically and politically similar to the Italian National Alliance ( cm. ITALY).

There are also smaller political parties: "Socialists for Reform", "Ideas in Motion" and etc.

Armed forces.

The Republic of San Marino does not have an army in the modern sense of the word. There are several special military units with special functions. From the 13th–14th centuries. there is a once famous and now traditional corps of archers (currently 80 people). Created after 1740 and armed with sabers, the Guard of the Great General Council is obliged to protect the captains-regents and members of parliament during meetings, as well as during civil and religious holidays. The fortress guard unit (formed in 1543) controls the artillery; According to the 1987 law, it also performs the functions of police bailiffs. In addition, this unit is responsible for protecting the state border, public buildings and ministries; it is traditionally armed with rifles with bayonets. Participants in the city militia (“militia”), established in 1600, were supposed to be citizens of San Marino and foreigners who had lived in the territory of the republic for at least 6 years, aged 16 to 55 years. Every family that had at least two men of suitable age was required to place half of them in the militia. It is under the command of a captain and is armed with muskets and bayonets, playing a rather ceremonial role. Since 1843, the militia has had a group of military musicians of 50 people.

In 1842, a gendarmerie corps was formed in San Marino, performing police duties (fighting crime, maintaining public order, protecting the safety and property of citizens, implementing state laws and regulations). There is also a corps of city civilian police whose officers monitor street traffic and perform functions in the civil, commercial, industrial, tax and fiscal areas.

The country's military spending in the 2000–2001 fiscal year amounted to $700 thousand.

Foreign policy.

San Marino adheres to the principles of neutrality and non-alignment and is not a member of military-political blocs. Member of the UN since 1992. It is part of a number of its specialized organizations. Member of the European Council. It has diplomatic relations with many states (with the Russian Federation established in full in 1993).

Special relations exist between San Marino and Italy, with which the republic is in a customs and postal union. In accordance with the 1953 treaty, Italy agreed to pay San Marino an annual monetary compensation for refusing to issue its own banknotes and organize a customs service, as well as for the obligation not to allow the construction of gambling houses and radio television stations on its territory (the last agreement was canceled in 1987) .

Population.

More than 16% of the country's population is under 15 years old, 67% are from 15 to 64 years old. The average age of the republic's residents is 39.6 years. Population growth in 2003 was almost 1.4%, the birth rate was 10.49 per 1000 people, the mortality rate was 7.86 per 1000 people, and the infant mortality rate was 5.97 per 1000 newborns. Average life expectancy is 81.43 years.

OK. 80% of the population are Sanmarinians, 19% are Italians. More than 13 thousand citizens live abroad, primarily in Italy. The official language is Italian; the population speaks a Romanesque dialect Italian language. 93% of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church.

There are more than 30 settlements in San Marino. The capital of the country, the city of San Marino (4.4 thousand inhabitants) is located on the western slope of Mount Titano just below its peak. The city has government buildings, architectural monuments, and museums. Business transactions are carried out in Borgo Maggiore (5.2 thousand), located 185 m below the capital. The most large settlement– Serravalle (7.9 thousand). The number of inhabitants in all other settlements does not exceed 1000 each.

Economy.

Until the late 1950s, the country's economy was poorly developed. The agricultural sector and tourist services predominated. The main occupations of the residents were agriculture, cattle breeding, winemaking and gardening. Stone cutting and sulfur mining played a major role in industry. There were small factories producing dishes, soap, perfumes and souvenirs. Bread, tobacco, salt and manufactured goods were imported from Italy, where San Marino, in turn, supplied wool, livestock, wine, silk, fruit, cheese and building stone. In the 1960s, industry began to develop: industrial enterprises were built, employing more than 100 workers.

According to estimates for 2001, the country's GNP amounted to $940 million (real growth in 2001 - 7.5%), which corresponded to $34,600 per capita. The inflation rate was 3.3%.

GDP by economic sector in 2009 was distributed as follows: agriculture - 0.1%; industry – 39.2%; services – 60.7% (2009).
Unemployment, which was 2.6% in 2001, rose to 5.5% in 2011.

In 2009, GDP per capita was $36,200, real GDP growth rate was 0.8% (2011)
More than 50% of San Marino's GDP comes from the tourism sector. In 2000, the country was visited by more than 3 million tourists, many of whom specially come to the republic from the beaches of the Adriatic coast to admire the sights of the ancient republic. Banking is also a developed service.

The industry produces clothing, electronics, ceramics, ceramic tiles, furniture, paints and varnishes, cement, fabrics, paper, leather, furs, confectionery, wines and liqueurs. 59% of electricity is produced from hydro resources, 41% comes from thermal energy, and a significant part of the electricity has to be imported from Italy.

17% of the territory is cultivated for agricultural purposes. Mainly wheat, corn, grapes and fruits are grown. San Marino is famous for its wine. Livestock farming (cattle, pigs) is developed. Main livestock products: cheeses, meat, leather. Silkworms and bees are bred.
Exports include building stone, lime, woolen fabrics, chestnuts, wheat, wine, baked goods, leather, ceramics, varnishes, tiles, furniture and cement. A variety of consumer goods and food products are imported. The main trading partner is Italy.

The expenditure side of the state budget in 2000 was estimated to be 400 million dollars, the revenue side was 400 million. San Marino is included in the euro zone and does not have its own currency and paper money, although it issues its own coins and stamps, the sale of which constitutes an important source of income. Other sources of income are revenues from state monopolies, income taxes and annual contributions from Italy. These fees consist of customs duties on goods passing through Italian territory and destined for San Marino, as well as fees for the obligation not to issue its own currency, not to grow tobacco or open gambling houses. The agreement allows Italy to maintain a state monopoly on cigarettes and playing cards.

There are no airports in the country. A one and a half kilometer suspended railway connects the capital with Borgo Maggiore. The length of roads is 220 km. (all are paved). There are bus and car connections between San Marino and Italy. In summer, helicopters operate between San Marino and Rimini.

San Marino, surrounded on all sides by Italian territory, has been a free economic zone with a very low tax rate since 1956. The Republic of San Marino was among the 32 countries on the "first blacklist" as a "tax haven" along with Liechtenstein, Monaco, Liberia, Guatemala, Panama, the Philippines and Uruguay, as well as the group island states Caribbean And Pacific Ocean.
After the end of the G20 summit in London in 2009, at which it was decided to tighten measures against the so-called “tax oases” and publish a list of countries that help conceal financial fraud, the Republic of San Marino sent a letter to the Secretary General of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Angel Gurría received a letter of commitment to cooperate, in which he undertakes to amend his legislation regarding bank secrecy.
Since October 2009, a tax amnesty for the repatriation of funds has led to an outflow of funds from San Marino to Italy in the amount of more than $4.5 billion. This outflow, coupled with a money laundering scandal in San Marino's largest financial institutions, coupled with the global economic downturn, led to a deep recession, widening budget deficits and rising external debt. Industrial production levels fell, especially in textiles and exports, 90% of which were attributed to crisis-hit Italy.
The government took measures to combat the economic downturn, including subsidizing loans for businesses.

In September 2009, the OECD removed San Marino from its list of tax havens, and in 2010 the country signed tax information exchange agreements with most EU countries.

Society and culture.

The standard of living corresponds to that of the most prosperous areas of Italy. 96% literate. There are secondary educational institutions whose certificates are recognized by universities in Italy. From the middle of the 19th century. Free schooling is available. The Belluzzi College has existed since 1691. There are a number of social programs.

In San Marino in 1998 there were more than 18 thousand telephone subscribers and more than 3000 mobile phones. There were 3 radio stations and 1 television station. In 1997, there were 16 thousand radios and 9 thousand televisions in the country.

The foundations of the material culture of the Sanmarinians have been preserved since the Middle Ages. Typical are two-story houses with a gable tiled roof (Latin type of housing). For national cuisine Characterized by an abundance of spices and roots, and the consumption of many wild plants. Breakfast usually consists of a cup of coffee, a sandwich with cheese or jam, lunch - a snack, first and second courses. In this case, the appetizer is most often prepared from pasta seasoned with tomato, and the first course is a thick soup of beans, legumes and vegetables with bread soaked in it. Cold salads are often served with stewed meat.

The folk clothing of the Sanmarinians differs little from the traditional clothing of the inhabitants Northern Italy. Men wore short pants held together below the knee with a colored cord, white cotton shirts, as well as short jackets or sleeveless vests, and black hats or berets were placed on their heads. The elegant costume of women consisted of a long, wide, gathered or pleated skirt (usually in dark colors), a shirt similar to a Roman tunic, with wide sleeves and gathers at the shoulder and wrist, as well as a bodice. They wore outerwear, which could be longer or shorter. Women also wore a bright apron and a large headscarf in dark colors. Currently, folk costume can be found only on holidays.

Sanmarinians celebrate the anniversary of Arengo (March 25), the assumption of office of captains-regents, the Day of Liberation of the Republic (February 5), the Day of the Fall of the Fascist Regime (July 28), etc., as well as numerous religious holidays. Almost all holidays are accompanied by street songs, dances, music, and poetry readings.

San Marino is famous for its medieval fortifications and churches decorated with frescoes, paintings and statues. Sanmarinsky civil engineers of the 16th century became famous. Giovanni Battista Belluzzi and G. Genga, painter, sculptor and architect of the 19th century. Emilio Retrosi.

Story.

The most ancient period.

The ancient history of San Marino does not differ from the history of its neighboring regions of Italy. Ancient people appeared on the Apennine Peninsula ca. 500 thousand years ago. About 7–6 thousand years BC. on Adriatic coast Agricultural settlements began to emerge, and in 3500–2500 BC. In Northern Italy, a center of metallurgy of the Late Bronze Age developed. In the 13th–9th centuries. BC. this area was in the zone of distribution of the “fields of burial urns” culture. The ancient population was displaced by Italic tribes, one of which, the Umbrians, settled east of the Apennine Mountains. Later, Etruscan settlements appeared in this area. The “Iron Age” took hold in Northern Italy. In the 5th century BC. the Celtic Senone tribe settled south of the Po River. Finally, in the 3rd century. BC. Umbria was conquered by the Romans and became part of the Roman state. Located to the north, the Italian city of Ravenna was in the 5th century. AD the last capital of the Western Roman Empire.

The founder of San Marino is considered to be the Christian stonemason Marin, originally from Loparo on the Dalmatian island of Arbe ( modern island Slave in Croatia). At the end of the 3rd century. he, as the legend goes, came to Rimini to work on the construction of the port. He quickly gained authority in the local Christian community, and Bishop Gaudentius appointed him a deacon. Fleeing from the persecution of the Roman authorities, who under Emperor Diocletian (c. 245 - c. 313/316) launched a fierce persecution of Christians, Marinus went to look for a safe place where he could build a church and freely practice Christian worship. He managed to find such a place on Mount Titano, where he settled. Soon other Christian settlers began to join Marin. A settlement arose, and the noble Roman Felicita, who owned the mountain, gave it to the settlers forever, since Marinus cured her children. Marin was the spiritual father and priest of the community. According to legend, it originated in 301.

After the death of the founder, the community did not disintegrate. Its members decided to live in accordance with Marin's covenant: “I leave you free from other people.” The oldest evidence of the existence of a religious monastery is the record of the monk Eugippius (5th–6th centuries), which mentions the monk Basilitius from Mount Titano. Marin was canonized, and the settlement received his name.

In the 9th century locality, probably was under the patronage of the Duke of Urbino, but then regained its independence. According to the document “Placitum feretranum” (885), stored in the State Archives of San Marino, no one, including the church, had the right to dispose of the inhabitants of the mountain and make claims against them. Apparently, already at this time a general meeting of the inhabitants was meeting - the future Arengo.

In the 10th century Wars in Northern Italy prompted residents to begin strengthening their settlement. The Diploma of Berengaria (951) and the Bull of Honorius II (1126) mention the existence of a fortified town of San Marino. In the 10th–11th centuries. he turned into city ​​republic with its own laws. Its main body was Arengo, and executive functions belonged to two consuls (future captain-regents). Their list dates back to 1244. In 1253 the first statutes were adopted. Population growth prompted residents to expand the territory they occupied. They bought two castles from neighboring monasteries and counts - Pennarossa and Casole, as evidenced by sources dating back to 1200. The first handwritten collection of laws adopted by Arengo dates back to 1295.

In the 12th–13th centuries, along with Arengo, new bodies of the republic appeared - narrower in composition: the Council of 60 and the Council of 12. It was they who began to deal with current political issues.

Medieval republic.

The bitter struggle between the German emperors and the papacy in the 13th century, which engulfed Northern Italy, also affected San Marino. For centuries, the Republic had to fend off neighboring bishops who sought to tax the Sanmarinians and subject them to their judicial power. The victorious opponents of the papacy, the Ghibellines, expelled their opponents, the Guelphs. The inhabitants of Sanmarino entered into an alliance with the Ghibelline bishop Ugolin, and in 1247 Pope Innocent IV excommunicated them from the church. The excommunication was lifted from them two years later in Perugia. It did not intimidate the Sanmarinians; on the contrary, it gave them the will to fight.

The Republic entered into an alliance with the Ghibelline Duke Guido of Montefeltro, and then with his son Federico, against the Guelph Republic of Rimini, which was ruled by tyrants from the Malatesta family. The struggle between them continued until the conclusion of peace in Romagna in 1299.

San Marino had to endure conflicts with the papal throne under Popes Martin IV (1281–1285), Nicholas IV, Boniface VIII (1294–1303) and John XXII (1316–1334). Over the course of 75 years, church authorities cursed the republic four times.

In 1291, Bishop Hildebrand, appointed by Pope Nicholas IV as governor of Romagna, tried to force the Sanmarinians to recognize themselves as subjects of the pope and pay him taxes and quitrents. Residents refused, citing their history and independence. The dispute was examined by the famous jurist Palamede from Rimini, and his verdict was in favor of San Marino. The lawyer stated that the privileges of freedom were granted to St. Marina.

In 1296, church governors again tried to subjugate the republic. The Sanmarinos appealed to Pope Boniface VIII, and this time the papal legate confirmed the verdict of Palameda and confirmed the complete freedom and independence of San Marino.

The peace did not last long. In 1303, the Sanmarinians captured several envoys of the church who entered the territory of the republic, and the confrontation flared up with renewed vigor. Success in the war accompanied San Marino. Thanks to its well-trained military forces, the Republic forced Bishop Uberto to sign peace in 1320.

Threats from outside prompted the Sanmarinians to strengthen the fortification of the city. When in the 13th century. There was a danger of being encircled by Malatesta's troops, and construction began on the mountain of two more fortress towers, “Cesta” (“Fratta”) and “Montale,” along with the already existing “Guaita.” From the end of the 13th century. a second ring of fortress walls 1 m thick was built. In the 14th century. New work was carried out to strengthen the fortresses. Cardinal Anglico in 1371 mentioned that the city is located “on high cliff“, on top of which “three powerful fortresses rise”, inspiring anyone who wants to take them “fear and respect.”

In the 14th century the alliance between San Marino and the Dukes of Montefeltro was dissolved. Bishop Benvenuto and the Malatesta family offered the Sanmarinians church forgiveness, exemption from taxes on Sanmarinian property outside the republic, and the right to freely engage in trade. In exchange, they demanded that the republic refuse support to their rivals, the rulers of Urbino. The inhabitants rejected these conditions, and the struggle with the Malatesta family continued until 1366. Rulers from this family tormented San Marino for the next hundred years. In 1441–1451, in the midst of a new confrontation between the Malatesta and Montefeltro, a third, thicker city wall was built, which today surrounds the city. It was built taking into account the artillery that had appeared.

In the end, Malatesta's position weakened when it became clear that the rulers of Rimini had deceived their ally, King Alfonso of Aragon of Naples, and deprived him of a large sum of money. Relations between Malatesta and the papacy also deteriorated. Taking advantage of this, the Sanmarines entered into an alliance with Pope Pius II and the King of Naples in 1461 and resumed the war. In 1463 it ended with the heavy defeat of Sigismund Malatesta: the republic captured the castles of Fiorentino, Montegiardino and Serravalle, and the castle of Faetano voluntarily joined San Marino. Since then, the country's borders have not changed. In 1491, the Sanmarinians carried out a reform of legislative provisions.

The struggle for independence.

In 1503, the republic was invaded by the troops of Duke Cesare Borgia, who sought to seize the states of Central Italy. Borgia installed his viceroy, Hercules Spavaldo, in power. The occupation did not last long, as the Sanmarines entered into an alliance with the inhabitants of the Duchy of Urbino, who also rebelled against the invaders. In 1542, during the reign of Pope Paul III, he attempted to capture San Marino with a detachment of 500 men under the command of Fabiano de Montesansavino. However, the intention to take the city residents by surprise failed, and the detachment retreated. The representative of the German Emperor Charles V in Rome offered privileges to the republic and persuaded it not to trust the papal servants in Romagna. In 1556, Guidobaldo Rivera, a mercenary of Pope Paul IV, occupied San Marino for some time, but was soon expelled.

When the line of the Dukes of Urbino died out in 1631, its possessions passed to the papacy. The Papal States now surrounded the republic on all sides. In the same year, an agreement was concluded between her and the papacy, according to which the country accepted the patronage of Pope Urban VIII, and he in return recognized its independence and exempted it from customs duties when exporting goods from it to the Papal States.

During this period, the decline of the Republic of San Marino began. Arengo met for the last time on January 9, 1571. Statutes issued at the end of the 16th century deprived him of the power to elect members of the Councils of 60 and 12. From now on, the advisers themselves co-opted new members into their composition, as needed. All power was exercised by the Council of 60, or Great General Council, which officially consisted of 20 nobles, 20 peasants and 20 townspeople. In reality, it included representatives of the urban and rural nobility and the oligarchy. Residents showed increasing indifference to public affairs, many prominent citizens emigrated from the country. The cultural level of the population of San Marino was falling.

In 1739, the republic was subjected to the most severe threat during its entire existence. Sanmarinians P. Lolli and M. Belzoppi, incited by the papal legate of Romagna, Cardinal Alberoni, organized an anti-government conspiracy, but were arrested. The cardinal demanded their release, and having been refused, he arrested Sanmarinese citizens in Romagna and blocked the borders of the republic to prevent the delivery of food. In October 1739, Alberoni's troops, with the support of the clergy and papal supporters, captured San Marino. Residents of the republic were herded into the cathedral to swear an oath to the pope, but they refused. The houses of the most prominent citizens of the republic were looted. The captain-regents Giuseppe Onofri and Gerolamo Gozzi were deposed, arrested and replaced by a gonfaloniere and two guardians. However, they continued to call on the population to resist. A popular uprising broke out. At the same time, the Sanmarinians secretly sent envoys to the pope, seeking the restoration of independence. An inspector was sent from Rome, Cardinal Enrico Enriquez, and then the pope ordered Cardinal Alberoni in February 1740 to leave the territory of San Marino. “You can choke on this republic like a nail,” remarked one of the papal condottieri. These events once again awakened the Sanmarinians from their social lethargy, and the poet Carducci made his famous speech about “eternal freedom.”

The Napoleonic Wars changed at the beginning of the 19th century. international position of San Marino. Walking along the country's border in 1797, Napoleon paid tribute to its republican traditions and declared: "San Marino should be preserved as an example of freedom." He sent his representative Monge to Mount Titano to assure the inhabitants of the republic of his friendship. In 1805, the French emperor received the envoy of San Marino, Antonio Onofri, who arrived in Milan to sign an agreement to expand the trade agreement between San Marino and the Cisalpine Republic. The Sanmarinians were offered to expand their territory at the expense of neighboring Italian regions, but A. Onofri refused, saying: “We don’t need someone else’s. The Republic is content with its poor honesty.” The Emperor also promised to provide grain and artillery to San Marino, but this promise was never fulfilled.

The fall of Napoleon did not affect the status of the country: the Congress of Vienna in 1815 confirmed its independence and the inviolability of its borders.

In the 19th century San Marino served as a refuge for Italian revolutionaries and republicans. In the late 1830s, a branch of the Mazzinist society “Young Italy” arose here. In 1849, after the fall of the Roman Republic, Giuseppe Garibaldi retreated to the territory of San Marino with 2 thousand soldiers of his legion. The country's authorities agreed to provide assistance to the wounded and persecuted, but demanded that the Sanmarinians be spared the hardships of war. Yielding to this demand, Garibaldi announced the dissolution of the legion. The fact that the Italian revolutionary took refuge in San Marino aroused the wrath of Austria. Austrian and papal troops began to surround the republic. However, Garibaldi and 250 of his supporters managed to leave the country 15 minutes before the encirclement was completed. They were conducted by Sanmarinian Nicola Zani. Austria and the papal government did not forgive the republic for its self-will. In 1851, San Marino had to withstand the blockade of Austrian troops, and in 1854 the papal authorities invited the Duke of Tuscany to carry out a military occupation of San Marino as a “place of refuge for liberals.” The threat was averted only due to the fact that the French Emperor Napoleon III sent his envoy to the country and offered it his protection. The situation was aggravated by political unrest in the republic itself in 1853–1854, which was blamed on young adherents of Garibaldi.

In 1859, regimes hostile to the republic in neighboring Italian states fell, and it was now surrounded by a single Italian kingdom. In 1862, Italy concluded a treaty of friendship and trade with San Marino, recognizing and guaranteeing the country's independence. This treaty was renewed in 1872 and 1897.

Social movements and political reforms.

The period 1865–1885 was relatively favorable for the economy of the republic. The treasury of San Marino was significantly replenished, not least through the trade in awards and titles. Measures were taken to develop economic infrastructure, build roads and public buildings. But at the end of the 19th century. The time has come for an economic recession against the backdrop of the agrarian crisis in Europe. Government funds have declined sharply, leaving many workers unemployed. The difficult social situation increased criticism of the oligarchic government, especially from young people. Demands for political reforms intensified.

The Sanmarinian opposition was initially dominated by adherents of Garibaldi and Mazzini. In 1882, a monument to Garibaldi was erected in the Republic, and local progressives sought permission to raise their banners during this ceremony. The Sanmarine Mazzinists organized their own group, led by a lawyer from Borgo, Giacomo Martelli. They maintained close ties with like-minded people from the Italian city of Rimini and with republican and radical refugees who found refuge in San Marino.

In the 1880s–1890s, the ideas of anarchism spread in the country, and by the end of the 1890s, legal socialist reformists became stronger. The latter found support in the Mutual Aid Society, created back in 1876 and numbering only 128 members at the time of its creation. In 1891 there were already 400 people in it. The leader of the organization was the intellectual Pietro Franciosi (1864–1935), an active supporter of political reforms back in the 1880s. put forward the idea of ​​reviving Arengo. Using part of the income from a savings bank opened in 1892, the Mutual Aid Society expanded its activities to various corners of the social sphere. A grain warehouse for the poor and unemployed was opened (1891), a cheap canteen (1894), labor cooperatives and the Women's Mutual Aid Society (1900), a cash fund for the elderly and disabled workers and the Mount Titano Greening Society (1902), a consortium of workers' houses (1910) , mechanical bakery (1911), Trustee Society at the School of Arts and Crafts (1913), vocational school (1916), etc.

In 1892–1896 the socialists formed into political party, and already in 1898 they openly put forward the goal of “gradually transforming the existing regime into one of the forms of republican democracy.” P. Franciosi proposed restoring the original rights of Arengo, abolishing the nobility, introducing universal suffrage, changing the relationship between church and state and introducing a single income tax. The struggle for representative democracy unfolded under the guise of a campaign to restore Arengo's rights. In 1899 it was formulated Petition in support of Arengo, and a corresponding campaign was launched.

At the beginning of the 20th century. The social situation in the country worsened even more. The state budget deficit increased continuously. The population increasingly listened to demands for political reforms.

In April 1902, three members of the Great General Council made a proposal to introduce the institution of a popular referendum. During subsequent discussions, it was noted that there was no need to introduce new political institutions in the country and it would be more logical to return to Arengo. This slogan became a unifying slogan for all reformist forces. On March 15, 1903, the Sanmarine Democratic Association (SDA) was created, which put forward demands for the restoration of popular sovereignty and Arengo, the holding of referendums, the implementation of periodic elections of members of the Grand General Council, the democratization of the state and the separation of church and state. The newspaper “Il Titano” became the organ of the SDA, which quickly gained popularity.

Trying to disarm the reformers, the authorities carried out tax reform and took out a loan of 200 thousand liras to eliminate the budget deficit. But financial scandals soon came to light, and the situation worsened again. In September 1905, progressive-minded members of the Great General Council resigned, protesting against the conservative course of the government. In October, supporters of the reforms convened an “open people's assembly”, which was attended by many citizens of San Marino. The “Committee for Arengo” was formed, headed by lawyer Gustavo Babboni and P. Franciosi. He demanded the resignation of the government and the convocation of Arengo. Yielding to public pressure, the authorities were forced to agree to hold Arengo on March 26, 1906 in the form of a referendum to answer the question of whether the population wanted to change the country's constitution. 805 heads of families gathered for this meeting. Most of them were in favor of holding periodic elections of members of the Grand General Council.

On June 10, 1906, the first general elections were held, in which the “Electoral Committee”, formed on the basis of the “Committee for Arengo,” achieved success. However, there was no clear majority in the new parliament. The Socialists, who stood on the far left flank of the reform movement, received 5 seats in the Council. They proposed a list of necessary changes, starting with the separation of church and state.

The new authorities entered into an agreement with Italy that provided San Marino with more favorable customs payments, organized an international lottery, which significantly replenished the state treasury, introduced the metric system of measures, abolished the privileges of holders of noble titles, and also adopted a new law granting citizenship to foreigners.

However, the anti-clerical demands of the socialists did not meet with the understanding of their more moderate democratic allies. At the end of 1907, their coalition collapsed, and the socialists left the “democratic group” in the Council. In 1908, by-elections were held for the five vacant seats, and the Socialists were successful. They called for the abolition of the teaching of God's law in schools and the introduction of elections of captain-regents by members of the Council (until then determined by lot). The Grand General Council voted to introduce the post of Inspector of Public Services (in reality, he took up his duties only in 1913), and in 1909 adopted laws regulating the work of guides (this marked the beginning of the development of tourism) and transport.

On October 8, 1908, the teaching of God's law in primary schools republics. On August 3, 1909, this decision was officially approved by the Council.

Outraged Catholics, relying on the support of rural residents, intensified their work in the Great General Council, and on May 16, 1909 they established the Sanmarin Catholic Union (SCU). He declared his task to be the defense of Catholicism and traditional Sanmarinian institutions. But partial elections in June did not change the overall political situation. In September 1909, the post of Secretary of State for Internal Affairs was taken by the socialist Giuseppe Forcellini.

Catholics and conservatives began a bitter campaign against the government majority. From the beginning of 1910, they organized mass rallies, and also began to develop their own social program, create their own social insurance funds, etc. On February 26, when the Council was discussing the law on civil servants, Catholics organized a mass demonstration of peasants protesting against the introduction of benefits for employees. The protest marchers attacked the Captain Regents and Progressive Deputies and laid siege to the Council building. However, the demonstrators eventually lifted the siege and dispersed. On March 20, a meeting of members of the Great General Council, as a compromise, called on the parties to show restraint, recommended that the Council adopt a law on civil servants and manage the republic’s economy with more skill. After this, the tension subsided somewhat. In July, Catholics achieved significant success in partial elections to the Council.

Political infighting hampered the implementation of reforms. In 1910, only laws on civil servants and primary schools were adopted; in 1911, the reform process slowed down. In May 1911, anti-clericals refused to take part in partial elections. Only in 1912 did a regrouping of political forces take place. In May, the socialists proposed holding early re-elections of the entire composition of the Great General Council, Catholics called for the convening of a new Arengo to discuss the current situation and the law adopted by the Council on filling vacant church posts. Protesting against him, the Sanmarinian clergy threatened to close all churches in the country. In June, Catholics boycotted the elections of a third of the Council members and disrupted them in a number of areas. In September, the Socialists and various factions of the Democrats agreed to create a Democratic Bloc with a common program. New tour elections in September failed to fill vacant seats on the Council as Catholics continued their boycott. And only in November the vote brought complete triumph to the Democratic bloc. This success was confirmed in partial elections in April and November 1913.

The government of the Democratic Bloc obtained an increase in customs duties from Italy, signed an agreement on the supply of electricity to San Marino, and began construction of a water pipeline. However, in June 1914 the socialists failed to achieve the adoption of a new tax law. The democratic bloc began to disintegrate.

Another aggravation of the political situation occurred in connection with the revolutionary uprising in Italy in June 1914 (“Red Week”). After its suppression, many Italian revolutionaries (socialists and anarchists) took refuge in San Marino. The country's socialists defended granting them asylum, while Catholics strongly objected. Workers' demonstrations took place in the republic. Ultimately, the Democrats broke their alliance with the Socialists and aligned themselves with the Catholics.

The First World War and the Fascist Dictatorship.

During the First World War, 15 Sanmarin volunteers took part in actions on the side of the Entente. At the front there was a military hospital with Sanmarinsky personnel. Although military operations did not directly affect the country, the war had a major impact on its economic and social situation. The opportunity to emigrate disappeared, hundreds of emigrants returned to their homeland. Inflation has increased sharply. In 1915, due to the danger of famine, the government confiscated crops to guarantee the population a minimum food supply. In November 1916, fixed prices for food products were introduced in San Marino, and in 1918, the Autonomous Administration for Consumption was organized to combat profiteering. But the results of these measures were insufficient. In 1918, unemployment increased. In the summer there were mass strikes and popular protests against high prices. In partial elections in June 1918, the bloc of rightists, Republicans and Catholics won 14 of 24 seats.

After the end of the war, unemployment continued to rise, and only in the early 1920s was this problem mitigated by renewed emigration. Social difficulties contributed to the aggravation of the political situation. Since November 1918, strikes of employees and workers took place. demanding improvement of material conditions. Radical sentiments grew in the socialist movement, which weakened the Socialist Party, which did not achieve success in partial elections in August 1919. During the same period, the Catholic People's Party (PP) took shape in San Marino. At the Arengo session, the party demanded a complete renewal of the Grand General Council based on universal suffrage and proportional representation. The PP supported measures to establish fixed prices for grain, but in 1920 it expressed support for peasant protests against this measure.

The PP achieved the dissolution of the Council and the holding of new general elections in November 1920. It won a landslide victory, winning 29 of the 60 seats; 18 seats went to the socialists and 13 to the democrats. Since the Socialists refused to take seats in the Council, by-elections were held in April 1921, and the PP now had an absolute majority. In the same year, the socialist party split: the Sanmarine communists organized their own party.

During the onset of fascism in Italy in the early 1920s, many socialists and anarchists fleeing fascist terror found refuge in San Marino. In the summer of 1921, fearing reprisals from the Italian fascists, the government of San Marino took measures to restrict democratic freedoms. It introduced censorship of the press, stationed the Italian Carabinieri in the republic and abolished the right to asylum. Most of the 189 political emigrants were arrested and handed over to Italian authorities; only a few were able to stay in the country until August 1921.

In the summer of 1922, fascist troops began terror in San Marino. In September they destroyed the People's House in Serraval. The fascists, led by Manlio Gozzi, attacked trade union premises and the homes of left-wing politicians and activists. P. Franciosi, socialist leader Gino Giacomini and many others were forced to leave the country. In October 1922, the Socialist Party actually ceased to exist, and its newspaper ceased publication. The fascists achieved the dissolution of the Great General Council; At the new elections in March 1923, a single list of candidates was nominated - the “Patriotic Bloc”, which also included members of the PP and Democrats. However, the NP was soon forced to declare that its members were “returning to religion”; its publication ceased.

During 1923 the Nazis created organizational structure, consisting of 14 city committees and local branches. A repressive apparatus was formed. By 1926, the establishment of an open fascist dictatorship in San Marino was completed. The establishment of the dictatorial regime was accompanied by the adoption of various discriminatory laws, including the law of 1928, according to which a resident of the country who married a foreigner lost her San Marino citizenship.

The rule of the fascists did not lead to a significant change in the socio-economic structure of the country. There was no modernization of the economy. In the 1940s, only five small industrial enterprises operated in San Marino: a paper mill, a tannery, a pasta factory and branches of two Italian firms. The only significant undertaking can be considered the construction in 1932, with the help of Italy, of an electrified railway 32 km long, connecting San Marino with Italian city Rimini. From 17 km. A significant part of the routes passing through the country were through tunnels under Mount Titano. Power was still in the hands of the old oligarchic groups, primarily the Gozzi family. At the head of the state were the captain-regents, who now became members of the fascist party. The Supreme Sovereign Council became the legislative body. In 1939, San Marino and Italy confirmed a treaty of friendship.

World War II and the fall of the fascist regime.

Until the early 1940s, there was no organized opposition movement in San Marino. Only after 1941 did underground groups of communists, socialists and other anti-fascists begin to emerge in the country. The state remained neutral in the war, but after 1942 its consequences began to affect the economy. On January 1, 1943, bread cards were introduced; The black market, smuggling and food speculation flourished. After the fall of the fascist regime of Mussolini in Italy, on July 27, 1943, the fascist captains-regents proclaimed the dissolution of the fascist party and assumed full power. On July 28, a massive popular demonstration took place, convened on the initiative of communists, socialists and democrats. About 3 thousand people took part in it, demanding the resignation of the pro-fascist government. The delegation they formed held negotiations with the captain-regents Michelotti and Manzoni, during which an agreement was reached on the dissolution of the Supreme Sovereign Council and the appointment of a regency council to hold free elections to the Grand General Council. The liquidation of the fascist regime was officially announced. Political emigrants began to return to the country, including the socialist leader G. Giacomini, who was also included in the regency council. A mass anti-fascist organization was created - the Freedom Committee. The Council canceled all decrees, decrees, appointments and awards of authorities that followed in the period from January 1, 1923 to July 27, 1943, appointed an emergency control commission to investigate the activities of fascist figures, etc. In the elections to the Grand General Council on September 5, 1943, the Freedom Committee list won a complete victory.

But the fate of democracy in San Marino now depended on military-political events in Italy. Fleeing from the fighting in 1943–1944, about 100 thousand refugees from neighboring Italian regions found refuge on the territory of the republic. After Mussolini, relying on German support, created the government of the “Italian Social Republic” in Northern Italy in September 1943, the fascists in San Marino became more active again. They seized the government palace and demanded the resignation of the elected government. As a result, a “reconciliation pact” was signed, and on October 23, a new government body, the State Council, was formed with the participation of fascist leaders. At the end of October, the country was visited by German Field Marshal General E. Rommel, who was received by the country's leadership. He assured the republic of his sympathy and promised to guarantee its security.

On October 28, the Grand General Council officially transferred powers to the Council of State. The new regime introduced sanctions against those who provided assistance to prisoners of war and deserters from warring armies who took refuge in San Marino. Anti-fascists were periodically arrested. Italian fascist and German military forces invaded the country, seized food from the population, searched the homes of families sheltering refugees, confiscated vehicles and arrested prisoners of war. Communists, socialists and other anti-fascists had to act under the legal cover of the People's Union.

In January 1944, the Fascist Party was officially re-established, led by Giuliano Gozzi. However, the fascists failed to get their supporters elected as captain regents on April 1, 1944. Despite San Marino's neutrality, the country was subjected to Allied air raids on June 26, 1944. The bombing killed about 60 people. Tension grew as the fighting approached the borders of the republic. Despite protests and objections, on September 4 the German command placed its artillery batteries on Sanmarinian territory, and the Allies responded with a raid on Serravalle. On September 19–20, fierce fighting took place on the lands between German units and the forces of the British 5th Army; The country suffered heavy damage. For two months the republic remained occupied.

On September 23, 1944, the Grand General Council canceled the transfer of powers to the Council of State and resumed the exercise of supreme power. The Freedom Committee was restored, and the publication of printed organs of various parties resumed. In March 1945, the Committee won a complete victory in the elections to the Grand General Council, winning 40 out of 60 seats (including 18 going to the Communist Party). The right-wing Sanmarino Democratic Union won 20 seats.

Republic of San Marino after World War II.

Left forces were in power in the republic until 1957. The main parties of the ruling coalition remained the Sanmarinsky Communist Party (SMCP) and the Sanmarinsky Socialist Party (SMSP), whose representatives held the posts of captain-regents. The left government, which won the general elections in 1951 and 1955, carried out a number of reforms: some enterprises were nationalized, 1/4 of the mountain lands were developed, an agrarian reform was carried out, as a result of which the hired agricultural worker had to receive at least 60% of the total harvest, new ones were opened schools.

In an effort to achieve greater economic independence and solve financial problems, the government decided in 1950 to open a casino and begin building powerful radio and television stations. In response, Italy declared a blockade of the republic, which was lifted at the end of 1951. In 1953, San Marino and Italy signed an agreement according to which San Marino refused such construction in exchange for regular monetary compensation.

In 1957, an acute political crisis broke out in the country. There was a split in the SMSP; a breakaway group of "independent socialists" entered into an alliance with the opposition parties - the Christian Democrats (CDA, existed since 1948) and the Social Democrats (SDP, formed in 1955). The left-wing coalition lost its majority in the Grand General Council; Captain Regents Primo Marani (Communist) and Giordano Giacomini (Socialist) dissolved Parliament on September 18, announcing new elections under international supervision. However, the opposition refused to accept this decision. Italy came out in support of the opposition. On September 28, Italian carabinieri with tanks and armored vehicles blocked the republic. On September 30, the Christian Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party and the Independent Socialists created a parallel provisional government in the village of Roveretto and announced the removal of the captains-regents. It was recognized by Italy and the USA. The authorities turned to the UN, but, unable to withstand the blockade, surrendered. The government of the republic resigned, yielding, as Secretary of State for Internal Affairs Morganti said, to “force and violence.” On October 12, San Marino was occupied by the Italian Carabinieri, and on October 24, the Christian Democrats and their allies appointed new captains-regents and a new government. The winners put former captain regents and other left-wing figures on trial, accused the communists of organizing a conspiracy, and introduced a state of emergency in 1958. The electoral law was changed, and Sanmarinians living abroad gained the right to vote by mail (abolished in 1966). This electoral reform allowed the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats to win the 1959 general elections. Their coalition won elections in 1964 and 1969 and remained in power until 1973.

Since the late 1950s, there has been rapid economic growth, associated primarily with the development of tourism and the service sector. Industrial enterprises also began to be built. An increasing number of people left work on the land and became employees and workers.

At the beginning of 1973, the ruling coalition of the Christian Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Party collapsed. In March 1973, a new government was formed from representatives of Christian Democrats, socialists and a small group called the Movement for the Defense of Fundamental Freedoms. Parliament passed a law giving women the right to serve in parliament and government. In the 1974 elections, leftist parties achieved success. But the government was again formed by the Christian Democratic Party and the SMSP.

The new ruling coalition turned out to be fragile. The country was experiencing significant economic and financial difficulties during this period, and there were disagreements between government parties on how to overcome them. In November 1975, the Socialists recalled their representatives from the cabinet, and the coalition was restored only in March 1976. The government decided to increase taxes and customs duties. However, disagreements between the parties persisted, and in November 1977 the Socialists again left the government cabinet. Early elections to the Grand General Council were called in May 1978, which were won by the left parties - SMKP, SMSP and the Socialist Unity Party (formed in 1976 by the left wing of the SDP). They won 31 of the 60 seats and formed the new government of San Marino. His program provided for broad reforms in various areas of life, but it was not possible to fully implement it. In an effort to expand its minimal majority in parliament, the ruling coalition also attracted Social Democrats to participate in the cabinet in September 1981.

Despite the difficulties, the left government managed to increase employment by 9% by 1983 and reduce the number of unemployed from 6% to 4.3% of the working population. A master plan for the socio-economic development of the republic was adopted, school and public administration reform began, and pension provision was improved. In May 1983, the SMKP, SMSP and the Socialist Unity Party (SUP) again won the general elections (32 out of 60 seats). In October 1984, the Grand General Council adopted a tax reform requiring all citizens to declare the amount of their income. The government sought from Italy a review of the radio and television restrictions imposed on San Marino. In 1985, a law establishing a state university was approved.

The political situation remained unstable, as the opposition Christian Democratic Party pursued a course of confrontation with the left-wing coalition. The government was undermined by financial scandals in which representatives of SMSP and SEP were accused. On June 11, 1986 the government fell. For the first time in the history of the republic, on July 26, a cabinet of Christian Democrats and Communists was formed. The program was based on the “moral issue” (overcoming financial scandals), economic development and the fight against youth unemployment. The government remained in power after general elections in 1988, promising to modernize the structures of government institutions and promote development in the socio-economic field.

In October 1987, San Marino signed two agreements with Italy. In accordance with the first, one of the paragraphs of the 1953 agreement concerning radio and television was abolished. Under the second agreement, Italy allowed San Marino to have a state television center, but received the opportunity for 15 years to directly participate in its organization and activities on an equal basis with the Sanmarine side. Italy granted San Marino special conditions a loan of 12 billion liras for the creation of a television station and pledged to pay 6 billion liras annually for its maintenance.

In the early 1990s, the country's political scene changed again. In 1990, the SMKP decided to abandon Marxist ideology and transform into the Progressive Democratic Party (PDP); Left circles dissatisfied with this decision formed the Communist Revival party. In February 1992, the Christian Democrats changed their partner in the ruling coalition. They formed a new government with the participation of SMSP. The CDA and the Socialists won landslide victories in the 1993 and 1998 elections, while the influence of the former communists was declining.

In 1999, the government attempted to change the citizenship law. Parliament decided that in the future, Sanmarinian citizenship will be transmitted not only through the paternal, but also through the maternal line, and the 13 thousand Sanmarinians living abroad will have to formally declare whether they want to remain citizens of the republic. Such measures could double the number of voters. Dissatisfied with this, the opposition parties of the Progressive Democrats and the People's Alliance spoke out against the reform and initiated a referendum. The popular vote brought defeat to the government.

San Marino in the 21st century

The elections to the Grand General Council in 2001 generally maintained the same balance of political forces: the ruling coalition of Christian Democrats and Socialists received 40 of the 60 seats, 12 went to the Democratic Party (former communists), 5 to the People's Alliance, 2 to the Communist Revival, and 1 – the far-right National Alliance.

This situation in the balance of political forces remains quite stable in the country.

In 2011, two new captain-regents, the representative of the Christian Democratic Party Gabriele Gatti and Matteo Fiorini from the Popular Alliance, took the oath.

Literature:

Pechnikov B.A. The numbers on the map indicate... M., 1986
Dakhin V.N. Republic of San Marino. M., 1989