There are very few sources of information regarding the history of the Incas, an ancient Indian civilization. Most of the information comes from Spanish conquistadors and missionaries. Filippo Huaman Poma De Ayaalo, an Inca artist of the 16th century, left one original and priceless document - these are drawings and chronicles that give detailed description Inca society. Realizing that his world could disappear, Huaman Poma described all its splendor. This was his life's work. He intended to give it to King Philip II, in the hope that the monarch would see his colony in a different light and change his attitude towards it.

In his work, he also described the way of life of the Andean peoples before the arrival of the Incas - the Indians led a harsh and difficult lifestyle, they were practically savages. But everything changed with the appearance of a creature who was half-man, half-god - the son of Inti, the son of God. His name is Manco Capac. He called himself “Inca” and brought civilization to his world.

He taught people to build cities and cultivate the land. Under his leadership, the Inca world began to flourish. His wife Manco Capacá Ocllo taught the women how to weave.

This was the world of the Incas, where one name belonged to both the ruler and his people.

100 years after the formation of the Inca Empire, in the 15th century, this state, located on the territory of Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador, ceased to exist. However, more on this a little later... The article will talk about who the Incas were.

The Birth of Civilization

According to legend, the sun god Inti created the ancestors of the Inca rulers. These were 4 brothers and 4 sisters who came out of the Tampa Tokko cave. Their leader was Aiyar Manko, who carried a golden staff in his hands. He had to find a place where the staff would enter the ground, which would be a sign of fertile soil.

After long wanderings, Aiyar Manco and his brothers and sisters came to the valley of Cuzco, where the staff finally entered the ground.

Defeating the warlike local residents, the siblings founded the capital of the Inca Empire. Ayar Manco began to call himself Manco Capac, which means “ruler of the Incas.” He became the first Sappa Inka (paramount chief).

Was everything exactly like that?

Ethnologists at the National Center for Scientific Research are not entirely sure of the historical existence of the first eight Incas. Rather, they were mythical characters. Due to the fact that all currently available information about the Incas is closely related to their epic.

Each family of Inca rulers had its own traditions, similar to African ones. Each generation of rulers told history in their own way.

A significant period in the history of the Incas is associated with the ruler Pachacuti. Among other things, he was the greatest religious reformer. During his reign, the Inca people became much less dependent on the high priests of the solar religion.

Pachacuti time

In the 12th century, the Andes were inhabited by a huge number of different peoples and tribes constantly warring with each other. Pachacuti wanted to create an empire that would unite all the Andean peoples. His name, which means “world changer,” perfectly describes his aspirations.

He united the tribes around the city of Cusco and his goals became a reality.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the Inca Empire was subjected to an armed attack by the Chanca tribe. The city of Cusco is under threat. Pachacuti took command of the army and managed to repel the attack and, inspired by the victory, began military expansion.

Pachacuti captured territory in the area of ​​Lake Titicaca and expanded the possessions of the Inca Empire of Tahuantinsuyu in the North up to the Cojamarca region.

A few words about the way of life

Briefly, the culture of the Incas reflects their life. When the Incas enslaved peoples, they presented local rulers with special gifts - women and various wonders. Thus, they made him somewhat grateful, left him in debt. In exchange for these gifts, the leaders had to pay tribute to the Incas or perform for them different kinds works From that moment on, they entered into a relationship that is historically called vassalage. This could be forced labor, called "mita", or unequal exchange, called "aine".

This system of relationships with the captured tribes became one of the main aspects of the power of the Incas.

The creation of an orderly system on such a wide scale in the territory of one of the largest mountain ranges planet - was not an easy task. The Incas needed to create collective labor, trade, a management system and ensure security. All this would have been impossible without the construction of roads.

There is no doubt that the Incas already knew what a wheel was. However, mountainous landscapes were not suitable for the use of wheeled vehicles. Even today, most travel in the Andes is done on foot. But the Incas conquered the mountain peaks, creating a developed network of communication routes. They built bridges in a world that literally hung between heaven and earth.

A few words about the reign of Sappa Inca

The power of the Incas, like any other power, required influence on the consciousness of people. AND majestic city Machu Picchu, according to ethnologists, is only part of the image of power. For example, the ruler could not be looked at in the face. His image has always been associated with sacred rituals. He was revered as the son of the Sun and was a real shrine for the people.

The power of the ruler was perpetuated after his death, when he joined all the gods and himself became a God. The Huamana Poma Chronicles describe the Incas' understanding of life after death. They believed that human life force does not disappear after death. In their minds, the ancestors could protect those living on earth.

Capital of the Empire

In the heart of the Andes, at an altitude of more than 3 thousand meters, was the city of Cusco - the capital of the Inca Empire. In 1534 it was practically wiped off the face of the earth by Spanish invaders. The city of Cusco is the political and spiritual center of the Inca Empire.

In addition to Cusco, there were several administrative centers, there weren't many cities in the Inca Empire. Most of the territory is small villages where the Incas lived and worked on plantations. Agriculture was the centerpiece of their economy.

Rituals

To understand who the Incas were, it is worth turning to their epic.

In the chronicles of Mana Poma, one of the chapters is devoted to a rather strange ritual - capacocha. During certain events, such as solar eclipses, volcanic eruptions, or epidemics, children were sacrificed to earn the favor of the spirits. It also happened that these were the children of tribal leaders.

The capacocha was an important part of the political and religious cult in Cusco.

Counting system

Although the Incas did not have a written language, they used a system of knots and cords called a quipu to record numbers and possibly other information. Thanks to the decimal system, taxation of subjects was orderly and efficient.

Taxes in the form of food were collected throughout the empire and collected in kolpos. This system provided the population with acceptable living conditions and was an important aspect in controlling the economy of the empire.

They lived at high altitudes, where every 5-6 years there might not be a harvest, so they simply needed to stock up.

In return, the empire provided security, maintained infrastructure, and provided residents with a means of subsistence. For this purpose, large warehouses with essential goods were built everywhere. Such kolpos existed in every region.

Now let's get back to the division of land

Pochacuti's son, Tupac Inca, continued to conquer new territories and became ruler in 1471. By the end of his reign, the empire extended throughout Western South America. He showed the inhabitants of neighboring tribes who the Incas were.

In 1493, the ruler was replaced by his son Huayna Capac. The wars of the new ruler on distant frontiers increased the level of discontent in the empire.

In 1502, having won the civil war, Atahualpa's army faced invaders from Europe. And although the Incas outnumbered the Europeans, Francisco Pizarro, with a small contingent of conquistadors, completely defeated their huge army. With the help of guns and horses, which the Incas had never seen before, the Spaniards were victorious. Atahualpa was captured and killed a year later.

However, according to historians, this is not the only reason for the fall of the empire. At that time, it was in the process of fragmentation and war, which was the main reason for the collapse.

The great rise of the Inca Empire was almost as fleeting as its fall. And now, unfortunately, we can find out who the Incas were from the few sources that have survived to this day.

The Incas, or more precisely, the Inca, are an Indian tribe belonging to the Quechua language family. The tribe appeared in the 11th century, gaining a foothold in the territory of modern Peru. In the 15th century The Incas created the state of Tawantinsuyu and began to occupy a dominant position in it. This is how one of the ancient civilizations of South America arose. The Inca civilization was one of the most highly developed; Their household items and decorations amaze with their unsurpassed beauty, and the people themselves – with their hard work, talent, courage and energy.

The Inca's possessions covered more than 4000 km 2. The empire stretched across the Andean mountains, and its central part was located on the second highest (after the Himalayas) mountain peak of the Andes. The territories of modern Ecuador and Peru, Northwestern Argentina and part of Bolivia at that distant time were part of one of the great empires of the world - the Inca Empire. The number of peoples inhabiting Tawantinsuyu reached 10 million people - that's almost 100 ethnic groups.

From archaeological research it is known that on the Pacific coast of modern Peru, and in the mountainous areas (from Ecuador to Lake Titicaca in South America), various cultures appeared, developed and died out. The Incas themselves were originally a pastoral tribe that wandered, moving from Lake Titicaca to the north. On their way (not far from the northern borders of Bolivia) they found monumental structures and a small group of impoverished people.

Some archaeological finds indicate that before the 6th century. n. e. A new culture appeared in Tiahuanaco, which reached its peak in the 7th century. Apparently, the coastal cultures of Peru also contributed to its development. For about 3 centuries, the culture of Tiawanaku was the most highly developed of all that existed at that time on the American continent. But then its decline occurred, the reasons for which are still not clear. Various hypotheses have been put forward regarding this: a strong earthquake, an epidemic, the expansion of other tribes, etc.

The Incas took over a significant part cultural heritage Tiahuanaco, in particular, has magnificent architecture. So, about 20 km north of Lake Titicaca there is a high cliff, and under it is a monumental semblance of a pyramid. In addition, ancient sculptors recreated almost the entire animal world Andes and Amazon Valley. Archaeologists have found a sculptural figure of a shaman holding in his hand the severed head of a wild beast; statues of jaguars and fantastic beasts, such as a lizard with the head of a puma.

Birth of an Empire

Stopping in the Cusco Valley, the Incas founded a settlement here, which later became the capital of their empire. The settlement was founded by the Inca leader Manco Capac. He also became the first ruler. His title was called "Sapa Inca", and all the inhabitants of this territory began to call themselves Incas.

According to the beliefs of the Incas, the sun god Inti destined for them, his children, the great mission of turning representatives of semi-wild tribes into cultural (for their time) people. The ruler of Pachacuti especially succeeded in this. He was a fairly ambitious man, and luck was with him. Pachacuti, in addition to annexing many tribes to the empire, also spread the Inca religion and culture among them.

An ancient Indian legend tells that on two islands - Copti and Titicaca - the son of the sun, Inca Manca Capac, and the daughter of the moon, his sister Mama Oklo, were born. Their christening took place, and at it the sun god gave the brother and sister each a golden staff and sent them to the north. Having reached the first valley, the Inca tried the ground with his staff, but came across a stone. He went further and continued to stick the staff into the soil until it went deep into it. This happened in the Cusco Valley. Then the Inca called to him shepherds from the northern environs, and his sister went south and brought the rest. Together they built the main city of the empire, and in its very center they erected a temple of the Sun.

The next ruler, Tona Inca Yupanca, continued the work begun by Pachacuti, and as a result, one of the great civilizations appeared - the Inca Empire. Each of its new rulers adhered to a well-thought-out and effective system of government. When new lands were annexed to the empire, the rulers left the conquered peoples with their leaders, local languages and the opportunity to worship their gods. There was only one requirement: it was necessary to know the official language of Quechua, which was spoken only in Cusco. The Inca Empire was, perhaps, the only one in which relations between the peoples who inhabited it were built not on fear and violence, but on trust and cooperation.

At the peak of power

When the Inca Empire reached its height and power, the population of its main city of Cusco numbered about 20,000 people. The sacred place of Cusco was the main square, or rather its center. The Incas brought soil from all over the empire, symbolically mixed it and placed it in the center of the square. This act confirmed the equality and unity of all inhabitants of the vast empire. The highest achievement of both Inca architecture and visual arts the temple of the sun appeared. Built of stone, it had gilded walls and a roof covered with gold slabs, and a spacious courtyard into which five main chapels opened. The first was the chapel of the sun god. Its front side was decorated with a huge golden disk, personifying the supreme deity and his governors on earth - the rulers of the Incas. The ceiling and walls were lined with pure gold. The nearby chapel was dedicated to the moon; accordingly, all its decoration was made of silver. The chapel intended for the worship of the stars was also made of silver, only metal was supplemented here precious stones. And finally, the fourth and fifth chapels were dedicated to the rainbow and lightning and were decorated with corresponding symbols.

The Incas were very skilled builders. Until now, the technology of their masons remains a sealed secret. In the same temple of the Sun, for example, slabs, not fastened with lime and laid one on top of the other, form high sloping walls. In the courtyard of the temple, a stone was found with very smooth walls and cylindrical holes drilled in it with a diameter of about 6 cm. This is all the more surprising considering that the Incas were not familiar with either steel or iron, i.e. those metals without which life is impossible. the profession of a modern mason.

There are practically no gaps between the stones from which the temples are built. Neither a needle nor the thinnest piece of paper can pass between them. The ability of the Incas to give stones complex geometric shapes is also striking. Thus, individual stones (their front part) formed polygons with twelve sides.

Other buildings in Cusco were just as perfect as the Temple of the Sun. However, there is a version, supported by archaeological research, that construction skills was borrowed by the Incas from their predecessors. For example, ritual and public buildings in the city of Tiahuanaco, erected (as chemical analysis showed) in the 1st century. n. e., are distinguished by monolithic masonry. Even though the individual blocks weighed about 100 tons, they were cut and fitted with amazing precision.

One of the legends tells that Tiahuanaco was built either by gods or giants. The most impressive is the Gate of the Sun, made from a single stone block. The lintel of the gate is decorated with the figure of an unknown deity (which, however, can be found in other areas of the Andes) with large round and bulging eyes and a halo of snakes and cat heads. The deity holds staffs in his hands, on the top of one of them is the head of a condor.

In addition to the stonemasons of Tiawanaku, the builders who lived in the territory of Huari were unsurpassed masters of their craft. Perhaps they were the closest predecessors of the Incas in terms of urban planning. Having in their arsenal only cobblestones and a bronze crowbar, they erected buildings that have survived to this day, having withstood earthquakes more than once.

At Wari, stones were made of the same size, but their upper and lower surfaces were different. So, the upper surface was slightly concave, and the lower, on the contrary, convex. And when the stones were stacked on top of each other, they held very firmly due to the fact that the upper stone entered the cavity of the lower one with its convex back surface. Thus, by order of Pachacuti, palaces and temples were built in Cuzco. They were erected on the site of the demolished huts of the previous settlement.

Social structure

The social structure of the Inca Empire was based on the principle of hierarchy. Each new ruler declared that he reigned by divine right, since he was a descendant of the sun god. The power of the Incas was hereditary. The Inca ruler, or emperor, had a harem of about a hundred concubines, but the empress - the coya - was chosen from among the ruler's sisters. In turn, the emperor chose his heir from the children and grandchildren of the Koyas.

In a number of cases, problems arose with inheritance. So, Pachacuti’s grandson, Huayna Capac, died of smallpox, without even officially becoming an heir. His own heir, Ninan Kuyuchi, also could not survive the epidemic. The survivors of Huascar and Atahualpa plunged the country into the abyss of civil war, which marked the beginning of the decline of the empire. As for the transfer of inheritance in everyday life, a man inherited from his father, and a woman inherited from her mother. Interestingly, succession to the throne did not automatically include inheritance of wealth. In this regard, the new emperor almost immediately set out on a campaign to conquer new lands and gain wealth.

For greater efficiency in government, all families in the Inca Empire were divided into groups consisting of ten families. Each of them chose a head, who reported to the heads of the groups, which already consisted of fifty families. Thus, groups appeared that included one hundred, five hundred or more families (their number could reach ten thousand). This system made it possible to effectively collect taxes, and in kind. These included food, various tools, weapons, clothing and shoes, and much more. All this was sent to warehouses (kamkas), and every day widows, orphans, sick and disabled citizens received everything they needed. Such an exchange (not only of knowledge and culture, but also of resources) allowed residents to feel protected and not be afraid of natural disasters.

A service of special inspectors was created to oversee the actions of local officials. No one knew where and when they would appear (these were people from among the noble Incas) to check the work local authorities. They were called tokoy-rikok, which translated means “those who see everything.”

Inca writing

The Incas did not have a written language; instead they used a quipu (literally “knot”) - a system of multi-colored laces with knots. All the necessary information was recorded in the bundles: the number of inhabitants of the empire (able-bodied and elderly), the amount of food (down to each grain barn) and much more. Woolen laces of different colors expressed different concepts. For example, red meant war or a warrior, white meant peace or silver, green meant corn, and yellow meant gold. One knot represented the number ten, two knots next to it represented twenty. The profession of the creators of the quipu (these people were called quipucamayocs) was very important in the Inca Empire, because the reliability of the entire state machine depended on the correctness of the recording. Kipukamajoki combined the qualities of an artist, a logistician and an accountant. How important the preservation and interpretation of statistical data was for the Incas is evidenced by the fact that the creators of the quipu enjoyed privileges, in particular they did not pay taxes, but at the same time they had a huge responsibility, since a mistake they made would lead to failure in work and provided for the death penalty as punishment.

Researchers have shown that the colored knots gradually developed into a complex three-dimensional writing system that resembled Braille for the blind. It turned out that the pile contains more than one and a half thousand individual characters. This is twice as much as the Egyptians and Mayans, and slightly more than the Sumerian-Babylonian writing. Mathematical research has shown that the quipu uses a binary system, reminiscent of the basis of a computer language.

Inca engineering art

The Incas created a whole network of roads with a total length of more than 240,000 km, which connected the most remote or inaccessible areas of the country. The mountain road through the Andes from Cusco to the current capital of Ecuador, Quito, is especially impressive. On wide highways, stations (tambo) were located at certain distances so that courier runners (chaski) could rest and refresh themselves. Hardy people were chosen for this in their youth. They had to be able to run quickly in the thin air of the highlands. The constant attributes of the couriers were headdresses with flowing feathers and twisted seashell. Chaska, approaching the place where the next courier was waiting for him, blew into the conch and ran for a while next to his replacement, who memorized the contents of the message. This is how this kind of relay race took place.

Agricultural production of the Incas

The Incas showed themselves to be unsurpassed masters in creating a system of irrigation canals. It had no equal in terms of length and efficiency. The Incan irrigation structures survived centuries. It should be noted that the Incas adopted the principles of field irrigation from the Chimuor people they conquered.

The city of Chan Chan, the capital of the kingdom of Chimuor, was one of the most beautiful in South America. It was home to more than 36,000 inhabitants. Chimuora artisans made gold items that can be recognized as genuine works of art. When the Incas annexed Chimuor to their empire, they adopted to a large extent the skill and talent of this people and, to a certain extent, became disciples of their subjects.

The Inca fields were terrace-like systems, which were fortified on the mountain slopes with stone bastions. The earth belonged to the Sun, the people and the emperor. A family Inca could claim a personal plot (tupa). A plot that belonged to the sun god could be allocated to a resident of the empire if he had an addition to his family. The land could not be sold; it was bequeathed only to children. The inhabitants of the empire cultivated the fields together. First of all, the lands of the sun god were subject to cultivation, then the lands of the poor, disabled, widows and orphans, then their own, and last but not least, the princely and royal allotments. In the same sequence, the harvest was collected and poured into public barns, which were divided into common ones and those belonging to the sun god. From the latter, bread was distributed to the army, officials and people performing public works. The part of the harvest that belonged to the sun god was associated with the costs of priestesses and priests. If the year was poor, the reserves of the sun god were used.

The common people did not have livestock; this was the privilege of the king and God. The Incas used llamas and alpacas as pack animals. The state itself took care of the animals. Thus, the Inca royal dynasty, like that of the ancient Egyptians and Chinese, was closely associated with agriculture.

Medicine

The Incas were good doctors. They achieved especially great success in surgery, in particular in such a field as neurosurgery. During archaeological excavations in Peru, surgical instruments were found that were intended for trephination, that is, for opening the skull.

Life of the Incas

In order for the inhabitants of the empire to feel protected from natural disasters, famine and other extreme situations, the rulers ordered them to lead a regulated lifestyle. This primarily meant that no one spent time in idleness, everyone worked for the good of the empire. Only elderly people over 50 years of age were exempt from taxation and labor service. However, they also participated in community service to the best of your ability. For example, they looked after children, cooked food, prepared firewood, or did some other simple work.

The Incas were extremely clean people. This trait was manifested in everything, from the cleanliness of the cities themselves to the housing of every inhabitant of the empire.

The Incas had a special inspection that checked whether the owner of the house complied with the established standard of cleanliness. On a certain day an inspection was scheduled, and at that time the reed mat over the front door had to be raised. The inspector watched the woman prepare food, clean the house, do laundry and do any other work. The mistress of the house, who failed (in the opinion of the inspector) with her duties, was punished. In front of everyone watching, she had to eat all the dirt swept out of the house, and the owner had to drink the dirty water left after bathing all family members.

The Incas did not have divorces; all marriages they entered into were considered lifelong. This applied to both the nobility and the common people. The Incas did not have prisons, since any crime (violence, theft, robbery and other serious deviation from social norms) was immediately punishable by death.

The aristocratic part of society wore tunics: for women they were to the toes, for men they were to the knees. The tunic was tied at the waist with a belt with a heraldic sign. Sometimes the belt was replaced by a robe attached with pins. One of the main decorations of the Incas were large silver or gold discs that were worn in the earlobes. Their considerable weight pulled down the ears significantly.

Education

The Incas had a school in which not only the sons of the nobility studied, but also the young children of the rulers of the conquered kingdoms. She was in Cusco. Students learned oratory, military affairs, religion, and some sciences (for example, history, geometry). The training ended with exams, in which sixteen-year-old young people were subjected to quite difficult tests, demonstrating their knowledge, strength, dexterity and courage.

The exams lasted about thirty days. They took place in open areas, and everyone could watch their progress. The test involved a six-day fast (those fasting were allowed to consume only water and herbs), followed by a 7.2 km race. The next test consisted of the ability to stand motionless while the fencer inflicted thrusts and cuts on the subjects. In addition, there was a more severe test of strength, when strong blows were inflicted on their arms and legs with whips made of vines. These actions tested the graduates' ability to withstand any pain. Anyone who could not stand it, showing signs of suffering through facial expressions or gestures, was immediately expelled. There were often cases of serious injury and even death during the exams.

The culmination of the tests was the knighting of former students. The Inca ruler personally pierced the earlobes of the young men who knelt before him with a golden needle. Having received gold discs as signs of caste, young people (both the sons of the Incas and the sons of vassals - curacs) became representatives of the ruling class.

Girls were trained separately, this happened in monasteries. Special people ensured that the number of such girls in the empire reached a certain figure - no less than 15,000. Agents traveled to all regions of the country and, paying attention to the girl’s origin, her abilities and beauty, selected those suitable for training. Elderly mentors (mamakona) taught the pupils. Particular attention in the learning process was paid to the ability to dye fabrics and weave, since it was the girls who made thin fabrics (cumbi) from alpaca wool. These fabrics were used to make clothes for the emperor and his khoya.

Education at the monastery lasted 3 years, after which the emperor himself chose wives for himself and his nobles from among the pupils. Those of the girls who were not chosen became priestesses. They lived like noble ladies in houses on main square near the Coraxang Temple in Cuzco and were universally respected.

Holidays

The Incas attached great importance to holidays. First of all, during these days the connection between the people and the emperor was strengthened. In addition, during such events, people got rid of accumulated emotions, and finally the holiday was presented to the people as a gift for their hard work and loyalty to the emperor.

The ruler himself presided over the holiday. Firstly, his responsibilities included providing all participants with food and drinks; secondly, the program included musical performances, dances, exhibition fights, religious events - all this took place under his patronage.

One of the indispensable components of the holiday was the reading of poems in different genres. These were religious poetry, love ballads (usually about unrequited love), and heroic tales (about exploits). All this was passed on from mouth to mouth, supplemented by vivid descriptions of the valleys, mountain peaks and gorges. No less interesting was the musical performance, which consisted of dances (usually of a ritual nature), which were accompanied by mournful monotonous chants.

According to some sources, the Incas had about forty different dances. One of the most spectacular was the so-called jumping dance. It was performed by masked men, holding animal skins in their hands.

Inca music stood out primarily for its rhythmic diversity and richness. Hence they have a considerable number of different percussion instruments. These are large and small drums, as well as many flutes, representing a group of wind instruments. Flutes were made from animal bones or reeds, some were made from clay or condor feathers.

Particularly popular was the quena flute, carved from reeds and having eight finger holes. The musician alternately opened and closed them during the performance. In addition, the Incas often played flutes tied together.

In addition to flutes, the favorite instrument of the Incas was trumpets. There were even more of them than flutes, and they were made from wood, hollowed out gourds and sea shells.

Every month the Incas held three festivals. The most important of them took place in December - the first month of the rainy season. It was called kopak raymi, i.e. “big holiday”. During it (it was celebrated in Cusco), a rite of passage took place to initiate young men into men. The holiday was so seriously and strictly revered that only the Incas remained in Cuzco, and everyone else (not the Incas) left the capital at this time. At the end of the ceremony, they returned to the city again and confirmed their loyalty to the throne through the rite of communion.

To appease the gods, the Incas made human sacrifices. As a rule, these were children. The victim was then mummified; researchers managed to find more than four hundred similar ritual burials.

In 1995, archaeologists discovered a well-preserved ritual sacrifice, its historical age was about 500 years. It was a girl of 12–14 years old. Anthropologists conducted a lot of research on her, as a result of which they were able to find out the state of health, the diet of the Incas and a number of other details. These findings were obtained for the first time because the victim was frozen, with internal organs preserved, and not a dried-out mummy, as previous findings were. Interestingly, ritual figurines and several bright feathers were located on the top of the Nevada-Sabancay volcano near Cabanaconde (Peruvian village), and the body itself was in the crater of the volcano. Another intriguing fact was that before setting off on a difficult expedition, the American scientist Johan Reinhard and his guide Miguel Zarata offered corn beer to the spirits of the mountains. The ancient ritual worked and brought good luck to the anthropologist.

The Incas mummified the deceased rulers and their khoya. The composition that they used for embalming has not yet been clarified. After mummification (wrapping in fabrics made from the highest quality cotton, impregnated with the appropriate composition), the mummies were dressed in elegant clothes.

There were special servants who looked after the mummies, fed and watered them. The mummies even “went” to visit each other (servants carried them on stretchers) and to the emperor, attended holidays and were the first to “make” toasts. Caring for mummies was carried out at the expense of the state and was quite ruinous. Gradually this custom ceased to exist.

Decline of the Empire

Scientific research has proven that there was no gold in the Andes, therefore, the Incas must have received it from other areas of the empire. And one of these provinces was the Amazon. Even before the arrival of the Incas, local tribesmen paved trails in the Amazonian lowland. The Incas connected them by building a network of roads that connected isolated and inaccessible areas.

Feature transport network The Incas had hanging bridges. They were made from ropes and woven mats and hung across rivers, gorges and chasms, some of which were up to 30 m wide. Some roads built by the Incas are still in use today. They are being restored and completed.

In addition to the various goods (tropical fruits, honey, colorful parrot feathers, etc.) that caravans consisting of numerous llamas brought to the Incan capital, the main product was gold. It was this that was the main reason why the main person in the Spanish campaigns of conquest, Francisco Pizarro, decided to personally undertake an expedition to South America to verify its existence.

Francisco Pizarro was a semi-literate military man. He participated in suppressing the rebellion of the Taino Indian tribe on the island of Hispaniola (now it is Dominican Republic) and Haiti. His first two attempts to enter the Incan lands ended in failure. But in 1527 he reached the city of Tulebes. Seeing temples decorated with precious metals, luxurious gardens with fresh flowers and their copies made of gold, Pizarro realized that the “golden land” was not fiction, but reality. He returned to Spain and told Charles V about the richest land, the simplicity and friendliness of its inhabitants. The king gave him the title of governor and captain-general of all the lands he would conquer in the future.

Pizarro recruited about 160 conquistadors. Charles V supplied them with muskets, crossbows, spears and cannons. In 1532, Pizarro and his team again arrived in the land of the Incas. Just at this time, a civil war broke out between Huascar and Atahualpa over the position of sapa inca (translated as “the only, unique Inca”). The Spaniards, even with such a small number, managed to defeat the Incas, weakened by civil strife and a smallpox epidemic.

Back in 1493, Columbus wrote about the cordiality and friendliness of the inhabitants of the New World: “They refuse nothing that you ask of them; on the contrary, they willingly share with everyone and treat everyone so kindly that they would be ready to give their hearts.” What a contrast with these lines about the character traits of the Incas are the intentions of the Spaniards as stated in the Requisition of 1509: “We will wage war against you with all the ways and means that we have; we will subject you to the church and its officials and force you to obedience; we will take you, your wives and children captive and enslave you!”

When Pizarro and a handful of adventurers first saw the thirty thousand Inca army, the Spaniards realized that they could not defeat them in open battle. Therefore, the conquistadors resorted to cunning. An agreement was reached that Atahualpa would greet the Spaniards as friends. But when the Great Inca, dressed in luxurious clothes sparkling with gold, accompanied by his military leaders, advisers and priests, came out to meet Pizarro, then, at a signal from the monk Valverde, the conquistadors jumped out of ambush, killed Atahualpa’s entire entourage, and captured the Inca himself.

In this terrible massacre, which Pizarro organized, 3,000 Incas were killed, and the rest fled in panic, because they saw that the one who was both king and god for them was taken prisoner. The Spaniards took advantage of the fact that Atahualpa’s retinue had no weapons, because a ceremonial meeting was being prepared.

Pizarro's team, meanwhile, did not lose a single soldier. The captive Atahualpa was kept in royal conditions, and in a short time he learned to speak Spanish. The smart Inca realized that gold was perhaps his only way to stay alive. He offered an unimaginable ransom for his life and freedom - a room measuring 7 by 6 m, which would be filled with gold just above the head of an adult.

The Incas were indifferent to gold in the sense that, unlike fabrics, it never had any material exchange value for them. They called gold “the sweat of the sun,” from which they made beautiful things, real works of art.

The Spaniards were amazed at such untold wealth. But with this proposal, Atahualpa signed his own death sentence: the Spaniards again broke their word, and as soon as the ransom was received, Pizarro sentenced the Inca to death - he was to be burned. Subsequently, the Spaniard replaced burning with death by hanging.

The Spaniards melted down the ransom for Atahualpa, eventually receiving over 6,000 kg of gold and almost 12,000 kg of silver. In the same way, by order of Charles V, all products made of precious metals made by Inca craftsmen were melted down. The Spaniards destroyed temples and palaces, and forced the inhabitants to work in mines and mines, lifting heavy objects high into the mountains. As a result, the country's population fell from 7 million to 500,000.

The surviving Incas, under the leadership of one of the last kings - Manco - went into the jungle and built the city of Vilcabamba there.

It consisted of three hundred relatively small residential buildings and sixty majestic structures made of stone; roads and canals were built in the city. Periodically, the Incas attacked their enslavers, striking their outposts. This continued until 1572. When the conquerors decided to deal with the surviving Incas and came to Vilcabamba, they saw only ashes instead of the city. Manco's three sons, who took turns ruling the city after their father's death, burned it down before leaving. The last Inca leader, Tupac Amaru, was captured by the Spaniards as they carried out their punitive expeditions, going deeper and deeper into the jungle. Tupac Amaru was beheaded in the main square in Cusco. So the Inca Empire ceased to exist.

On the ruins of former greatness

The descendants of the once great Inca Empire currently live in Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador. Their number is about 18 million people. Most of the inhabitants of these countries speak Quechua. Peruvians, Bolivians and Ecuadorians believe in the restoration of the former glory and power of the Incas. Schoolchildren in Peru know by heart all the rulers of the Inca Empire. Peruvians also believe that one of the sons of the sun, beheaded by the Spaniards Inkarr, according to legend, will return to them and restore their former civilization. Even foods that were once part of the Incan diet are now becoming more and more popular. These are amaranth, araksa, nynyas, oka, cherimoya, etc.

Tawantinsuya (“the land of four quarters,” as the Incas themselves called their domain) demonstrated the will and intelligence of its people, who created a highly developed civilization in less than a century. And this despite the fact that the Incas did not know wheeled vehicles or writing. The birth, development, flourishing and fall of the Inca Empire were like an explosion, the echo of which has survived to this day.

The Incas are a small South American tribe that managed to rise to the very pinnacle of power and create a powerful empire that conquered many peoples and changed the face of the Andes.

They managed to transform themselves from a small, unknown tribe from the Cuzco Valley into the rulers of the Andes. And create great empire The Incas, built on the most accurate records of food supplies and amazed the newcomers from Europe with their grandiose structures.

The Inca Empire became the largest state in terms of area and population in South America in the 11th-16th centuries. The territory of their empire stretched from present-day Pasto in Colombia to the Maule River in Chile and included the territories of present-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and parts of Chile, Argentina and Colombia.

The Incas called their empire Tawantinsuyu (four connected cardinal directions). This name came from the fact that four roads left the Cuzco valley in different directions, and each, regardless of its length, bore the name of the part of the empire to which it led.

The ruler of these vast territories was the Inca, as the Indians called their ruler. Literally, “Inca” means “ruler”, “overlord”, “king”. And the word “Inca” itself was an integral part of the name of the leader of the empire. Over time, “Inca” began to be called not only the ruler of the empire, but also other representatives of the ruling class. And with the advent of the conquerors, the concept of “Inca” or “Inca” spread to the entire tribe of Indians that inhabited the Tawantinsuyu empire.

Formation of the Great Inca Empire.

For a long time it was believed that the great Inca Empire was created by a single genius. The brilliant Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui, the first ruler of the Incas, a sort of local Alexander the Great, was supposed to have transformed a handful of adobe huts into a powerful empire in the span of a single generation in the early 15th century.

But University of Chicago archaeologist Brian Bauer is confident that the roots of the Inca dynasty go back deeper than the 15th century. Arriving in Peru in 1980, together with his colleague R. Alan Covey, now an archaeologist at the University of Dallas, and a team of Peruvian assistants, he combed the steep mountain slopes up and down for four field seasons - and eventually discovered thousands of unknown monuments Inca culture. It became obvious: the Inca state arose between 1200 and 1300. And what gave them power was... climate change. The stronger neighboring tribes gradually lost their power by the beginning of the 12th century. This was partly due to drought, which raged in the Andes for more than a hundred years and led to famine and unrest.

In all corners of the Peruvian Highlands, skirmishes took place over meager supplies of water and food. Crowds of refugees rushed to the mountains because... only on the cold, windswept peaks of the Andes was it possible to hide from raids.

But the Incas in the fertile valley of Cusco had no shortage of sources of water - and the farmers from the Inca tribe did not move. While less fortunate neighbors exterminated each other, prosperous Inca villages united in small state, capable of protecting itself from enemy attacks. And between 1150 and 1300, when the climate in the Andes warmed significantly, the Incas from Cusco were able to take advantage of this warming.

As temperatures rose, they gradually climbed the mountain slopes 250–300 meters, constructing multi-tiered agricultural terraces to protect soils from erosion, irrigating fields using canals indicating a high level of engineering, and harvesting record corn harvests. The surplus of harvests allowed the Incas to “free up large numbers of people for other activities, such as building roads or maintaining a large army.” And then the day came when the Inca was able to call up more warriors and provide weapons and food for a larger army than any other of the neighboring leaders.

Having created a regular army, the Inca rulers began to look at other people's lands and wealth. They began to enter into dynastic alliances with the leaders of neighboring tribes and lavish gifts on new allies. When conquering neighboring tribes, the Incas, on the one hand, used their strong and numerous army, and on the other hand, attracted the elite of the conquered regions. Before taking military action, the Incas three times invited the rulers of the conquered region to voluntarily join their empire. If the neighbors were not persuaded by diplomacy, they were pacified by force. And gradually a powerful state was formed with its capital - the sacred city of Cusco, founded at an altitude of 3416 meters above sea level, in a deep valley between two mountain ranges.

Inspired by the success of their conquests, the Inca rulers turned their gaze further - to the rich lands in the southeast, where at an altitude of 3840 m there was a vast plateau with Lake Titicaca. In the 15th century, one of the greatest Inca rulers, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui, planned a military campaign to the south.

The arrogant rulers of the lakeside states had almost 400 thousand subjects. Their abundant land beckoned. The mountain slopes were riddled with veins of gold and silver, and herds of alpacas and llamas grazed in the lush green meadows. Military successes in the Andes largely depended on them: the llama, the only animal on the entire continent, could carry a load weighing 30 kilograms on its back. In addition, llamas, as well as alpacas, provide meat, leather and wool. Military rations, uniforms, army movement - everything depended on the availability of lamas. And if the Inca ruler had not managed to conquer the rulers who owned these herds, he would have had to wait with trepidation for the day when he himself would have to surrender to the mercy of the winner.

Pachacutec subjugated one southern ruler after another, increasingly expanding the borders of his empire, which at the peak of its existence became one of the largest states on Earth. The number of subjects of the Inca Empire reached, according to various sources, from 5-6 to 12 million people.

However, military victories were only the first step on the path to greatness. If the empire of Alexander the Great collapsed immediately after his death, the legacy of the Inca ruler Pachacutec-Inca-Yupanqui turned out to be much more tenacious. Because here, after the soldiers, officials and builders got down to business.

Wise rule of the Incas.

When an uprising broke out in any of the provinces, the Inca rulers arranged the resettlement of peoples: they diluted local population loyal subjects, and the disobedient were taken closer to the capital. Residents of remote villages surrounded by high walls were relocated to new cities, which were located along roads built by the Incas - the roads ensured the rapid movement of troops. The Inca governors ordered the construction of roadside warehouses for these troops, and their subjects had to fill the warehouses with provisions and other necessary supplies. Everything was foreseen, and the chances of an uprising became negligible. The Incas were organizational geniuses.

The Andean civilization reached its peak. Engineers turned disparate groups of roads into a single system that connected all corners of the empire. The peasants created irrigation canals, laid out high-mountain agricultural terraces, where they grew about seven dozen different crops, and stocked enough food in storage facilities to last from three to seven years. Officials have mastered inventory to perfection. They knew the contents of all the vaults across the vast empire, keeping records using an Andean form of computer code - bundles of multi-colored threads with a combination of knots called quipus. Stonemasons erected masterpieces of architecture.

Huayna Capac, dead ruler of the Incas.

Around 1493, a new Inca ruler, Huayna Capac, ascended the throne. At that time, it seemed that the Inca dynasty could control everything in the world. During the construction of the new capital in Ecuador, workers who did not know wheels dragged stone blocks from the Cusco Valley to a distance of 1.6 thousand kilometers along a mountain road. For these works, Huayna Capac rounded up more than 4.5 thousand rebellious subjects.

And a small army of men and women changed nature in a way that was amazing at that time. When creating the royal residence of Huayna Capaca (an area the size of seven football fields), workers moved the bed of the Urubamba River to southern part valleys, leveled hills and drained swamps to plant corn, cotton, peanuts and chili peppers. In the center of the “new land”, Huayna Capac’s country palace, Quispiguanca, was built from stones and bricks.

In spacious palaces, surrounded by parks, cultivated fields and gardens, Huayna-Capac received guests and played games of chance with those close to him. Sometimes he went hunting. To do this, there was no need to travel outside the estate: the ruler had at his disposal a secluded hunting lodge and a forest, where deer and other wild animals were found in abundance.

Around 1527, Huayna Capac died in Ecuador from some mysterious illness - but did not lose his power. Those close to him mummified his body, transported it back to Cuzco, and members of the royal family often visited the deceased monarch, asking him for advice on important issues and listening to the answers that were uttered by the oracle sitting next to him. And after his death, Huayna Capac remained the owner of Quispiguanca and the estate: the entire harvest from the local fields was to be used to maintain his mummy, servants, wives and descendants in luxury for all eternity.

Since the traditions of inheritance were so strange that all the palaces remained the property of the rulers even after their death, it is not surprising that each Inca, upon ascending the throne, built a new city palace and a new country residence for himself and his descendants. To date, archaeologists and historians have discovered the ruins of a dozen royal residences built by at least six rulers.

Conquest of the Incas by the Spaniards.

In 1532, foreign conquerors led by Francisco Pizarro landed on the coast of modern Peru. Who arrived with 200 foot soldiers, clad in steel armor and armed with deadly firearms and only 27 horses. However, on the way, his army is replenished by those dissatisfied with the rule of the Incas. The Incas fiercely fight the conquerors, but the empire is weakened by internal turmoil and internecine war, in addition, a large number of Inca warriors die from smallpox and measles brought by the Spaniards.

The Spaniards reached Cajamarca, the northern city of the Incas, where they captured the ruler Atahualpa. Eight months later they executed their royal captive, and their leader, Francisco Pizarro, installed a puppet on the throne - the young prince of Manco Inca Yupanqui.

The Inca capital, Cusco, was conquered by the Spaniards in 1536. Over the next few months, the Spanish conquerors appropriated Cuzco's palaces and vast country estates and took girls from the royal family as wives and mistresses. The angry Manco-Inca-Yupanqui rebelled and in 1536 tried to drive out the foreigners from his lands. When his army was defeated, he and a small number of followers fled to the mountainous region of Vilcabamba, where Incan rule continued for about 30 years.

In 1572, the last Inca ruler, Tupac Amaru, was beheaded. This marked the end of the Tawantinsuyu empire. The state was plundered, the Inca culture was destroyed. The vast network of Incan roads, vaults, temples and palaces gradually fell into disrepair.

In the western half of South America, below the equator, on the vast plains between the Andes, lived an industrious people who created a large civilized empire. Its kings, called Incas, were descended from the sun. It was said that, taking pity on the miserable life of the savages of the country of Peru, the sun sent his children Manco Capaka and his sister, who was also his wife, to gather them into a comfortable society, teach them agriculture, the art of spinning and weaving, and other crafts necessary for a comfortable life.

The first parts of the country to which education was introduced by Manco Capac and his sister were the environs of Lake Titicaca, on the islands of which colossal temples of the sun and moon later stood, surrounded by sacred maize fields. The Inca people went to these temples on pilgrimage. To the north stood in the beautiful Andean valley the sacred city of Cusco, protected by surprisingly strong walls. It was the capital of the Inca king; it housed a magnificent temple of the sun, where pious Peruvians from all over the kingdom also came to worship. Like the Aztecs, the inhabitants of Peru did not know iron, but they knew how to build huge stone buildings. These were government buildings. The king called the people to build them. The mass of the population was enslaved by the aristocracy, whose members, actually called Incas, were considered to belong to the same clan. The head of this family was the king, whose rank was inherited by the eldest son or, if there were no sons, then to the closest relative, whose father and mother were people of the royal family.

The growth of the Inca Empire during the reigns of its various sovereigns

Inca kings

The Inca kings, sons of the sun, were considered sacred. They had unlimited power, appointed all rulers and judges, established taxes and laws, were high priests and commanders in chief. The nobles, the highest rank of which were the Incas, members of the royal family, observed forms of special reverence in relations with the king. The Peruvian aristocracy had a ritual similar to knighthood: a young man of noble birth knelt before the king; the king pierced his ear with a golden needle. On special occasions, the Inca king appeared to the people in magnificent clothes, woven from delicate vicuña wool, decorated with gold and expensive stones. He traveled frequently throughout the state; he was carried in a rich palanquin; he was accompanied by a numerous brilliant retinue.

In all areas of the state, the kings had magnificent palaces. Their favorite residence was Yucay, a rural palace in a picturesque valley near Cusco. When the Inca king "went to his father's dwelling," the entire population of the empire observed established forms of mourning. Precious vessels and expensive attire were placed in the king’s tomb, and his beloved servants and concubines were sacrificed on his coffin; the number of these victims is said to have reached several thousand people. Expensive things were also placed in the coffins of nobles; At their funerals, wives and servants were also sacrificed.

Social structure of the Inca Empire

All land of the Peruvian Empire was considered the property of the Incas. It was divided among people of all classes; the size of the plots was commensurate with the needs of the class, but only the lower class cultivated the land. In those villages that belonged directly to the government, a third share of all agricultural and industrial products belonged to the king and his family; the other third went to the maintenance of churches and numerous clergy; the remaining third was divided annually in each rural community among householders in proportion to the number of souls in the family. Agriculture was under the patronage of the king. Products of agriculture and industry, including fine textiles made from vicuña wool, were stored in the royal stores and distributed as needed.

Taxes and duties in kind lay only on the commoners; the nobility and clergy were free from them. The commoner in the Inca Empire was obliged to work like a working animal, to properly perform the work assigned to him, without thereby improving his position, but was provided for from want. The people worked diligently under the supervision of overseers, the land was excellently cultivated, the mines delivered a lot of silver and gold; Bridges and stone roads were built along the main roads. Many of these structures were enormous; roads were carefully repaired; all areas of the state were connected by them with Cusco; mail went through them.

Inca city Machu Picchu

Inca conquests

The Inca Empire was peaceful. Its kings did not forget to take care of the good organization of the army, but they loved to conquer neighboring tribes not with weapons, but with the influence of civilization, industry, and through persuasion; in cases where they made conquests, they treated the conquered mercifully. The purpose of the conquests was to spread Peruvian worship and social order. Temples of the sun were built in the conquered areas; Numerous clergy settled at the temples; the land was divided into plots, the Peruvian work order was introduced; the crude dialects of the conquered were gradually replaced by the language of the Incas. In those areas whose population stubbornly resisted this influence, numerous Inca colonies were founded, and the former inhabitants moved en masse to other areas.

Scientists called amauta, were in charge of schools and kept chronicles of events using a special method of “knot writing” called pile. The tribes that lived near the initially small kingdom of the Incas were once hostile to it, but little by little they merged with the Peruvians into one people, having mastered the Peruvian language and submitting to the orders introduced among them by the Incas.

Sample of "knot letter" quipu

Serving the sun

The service of the sun in the Inca Empire was magnificent and almost completely pure from human sacrifice; they were produced only occasionally and in small quantities. Usually only animals, fruits, flowers, and incense were offered to the sun. Cannibalism disappeared among the Peruvians. Their main food was maize, bananas and cassava; They prepared an intoxicating drink from young maize trunks, which they loved very much. Another favorite pleasure of theirs was chewing coca leaves, which produce an effect similar to opium.

In the temples of the sun, an eternal sacred fire burned, which was maintained by the virgins of the sun, who lived like nuns. There were a lot of them. Some of them received the honor of becoming one of the wives of the Inca king. The king and nobles were allowed polygamy; but it seems that only one wife was considered legitimate.

The Inca Empire before the Spaniards

Such was the Inca Empire when the Spaniards, led by Pizarro, arrived to enslave him. They marveled at the carefully cultivated fields of the Peruvians, the beautiful products of their industry, the well-built houses, which usually had only one floor to prevent damage from earthquakes, but were spacious and comfortable; they marveled at the huge magnificent temples, the strong walls of the fortresses; They saw a hardworking, self-controlled people, meekly obeying the laws, which were considered the decrees of the deity.

The theocratic structure gave the state the character of an organism in which everything happens according to the law of necessity; every Peruvian was assigned his place in one caste or another, and he remained in it with submission to fate. Commoners lived according to the rules imposed on them by the higher castes, but for their lack of freedom they were rewarded with security from want.

"Inca State"

1. Formation of the Inca state

The Incas dominated the territory now called Peru for a long time. During the period when the territory of the empire reached largest sizes, it included part of South America and extended over almost a million square kilometers. In addition to present-day Peru, the empire included most of present-day Colombia and Ecuador, almost all of Bolivia, the northern regions of the Republic of Chile and the northwestern part of Argentina.

Term the Incas, or rather Inca, has a variety of meanings. Firstly, this is the name of the entire ruling class in the state of Peru. Secondly, this is the title of a ruler. Thirdly, the name of the people as a whole. Original name Inca worn by one of the tribes that lived in the Cuzco Valley before the formation of the state. Many facts indicate that this tribe belonged to the Quechua language group, since the Incas during the heyday of the state spoke this language. The close relationship of the Incas with the Quechua tribes is evidenced by the fact that representatives of these tribes received a privileged position compared to other tribes and were called “Incas by privilege.” “Inca by privilege” did not pay tribute, and they were not enslaved.

There are 12 known rulers who headed the state. The first royal couple, who were at the same time brother and sister, were the first Inca, Mango Capac and his wife Mama Oklo. Historical legends tell of wars between the Inca and neighboring tribes. The first decade of the 13th century was the beginning of the strengthening of the Inca tribe and, possibly, the time of the formation of a union of tribes led by the Inca. The reliable history of the Incas begins with the activities of the ninth ruler, Pachacuti (1438–1463). From this time on, the rise of the Incas began. The state is rapidly growing stronger. In subsequent years, the Incas conquered and subjugated the tribes of the entire Andean region from Southern Colombia to Central Chile. The population of the state is 6 million people.

2. Inca economy

The Incas achieved great success in many economic sectors, and above all in metallurgy. The mining of copper and tin was of greatest practical importance. Silver deposits were developed. The Quechua language has a word for iron, but most likely it was not an alloy, and the meaning of the word was given by meteoric iron, or hematite. There is no evidence of iron mining or iron ore smelting.

Tools and jewelry were created from the mined metals. Axes, sickles, knives, crowbars, tips for military clubs and many other items needed in the household were cast from bronze. Jewelry and religious objects were made of gold and silver.

Weaving was highly developed. The Indians of Peru already knew looms, and there were three types of looms. The Indians sometimes dyed the fabrics woven on them using the seeds of the avocado tree for this purpose ( Blue colour) or various metals, in particular copper and tin. Fabrics made in the distant centuries of the Inca civilization have survived to this day and are distinguished by their richness and fineness of finish. The raw materials were cotton and wool. Fleecy fabrics for clothing and carpets were also produced. For the Inca, as well as members of the royal clan, special fabrics were made - from colored bird feathers.

Agriculture received significant development in the Inca state, although the area where the Inca tribes were located was not particularly conducive to the development of agriculture. This is due to the fact that streams of water flow down the steep slopes of the Andes during the rainy season, washing away the soil layer, and in dry times there is no moisture left on them. Under such conditions, the Incas had to irrigate the land to retain moisture in the fields. For this purpose, special structures were created and regularly updated. The fields were located in stepped terraces, the lower edge of which was reinforced with stonework that retained the soil. A dam was built at the edge of the terrace to divert water from mountain rivers to the fields. The channels were lined with stone slabs. The state appointed special officials whose duties included monitoring the serviceability of structures.

On the fertile, or rather, became fertile, land in all regions of the empire, a wide variety of plants were grown, the queen among which was corn, in the Quechua language - sara. The Indians knew up to 20 different varieties of corn. Apparently, corn in ancient Peru was introduced from the Mesoamerican region. The most valuable gift of Peruvian agriculture is the potato, native to the Andes. The Incas knew up to 250 varieties of it. They grew it in a variety of colors: almost white, yellow, pink, brown and even black. Peasants also grew sweet potatoes. The legumes grown primarily were beans. The pre-Columbian Indians also knew pineapples, cocoa trees, various varieties of pumpkins, nuts, cucumbers, and peanuts. They used four types of spices, including red pepper. A special place was occupied by the cultivation of the coca bush.

The main tools of labor in agriculture were the spade and hoe. The lands were cultivated by hand; the Incas did not use draft animals.

The Inca Empire was a country that created many wonders. One of the most remarkable are the ancient Peruvian “highways of the Sun” - a whole village of highways. The longest of the roads exceeded 5 thousand kilometers. There were two main roads across the country. Canals were built along the roads, on the banks of which fruit trees grew. Where the road went along sandy desert, it was paved. Where the road intersected with rivers and gorges, bridges were built. The bridges were constructed as follows: they were supported by stone pillars, around which five thick ropes woven from flexible branches or vines were fastened; the three lower ropes, which formed the bridge itself, were intertwined with branches and lined with wooden crossbars. Those ropes that served as railings intertwined with the lower ones and protected the bridge from the sides. These suspension bridges represent one of the greatest achievements of Inca technology.

As is known, peoples ancient America Wheels weren't invented. Cargo was transported in packs on llamas, and ferries were also used for transportation. The ferries were improved rafts made of beams or beams of very light wood. The rafts were oared and could lift up to 50 people and big load.

Most of the production tools, textiles, and pottery were made in the community, but there was also a separation of crafts from agriculture and cattle breeding. The Incas selected the best craftsmen and moved them to Cuzco, where they lived in a special quarter and worked for the Supreme Inca, receiving food from the court. These masters, cut off from the community, actually found themselves enslaved. In a similar way, girls were selected who had to study spinning, weaving and other handicrafts for 4 years. The work of craftsmen and spinners was an embryonic form of craft.

Gold was not a means of payment. The Incas had no money. The Peruvian Indians simply exchanged their goods. There was no system of measures, except for the most primitive - a handful. There were scales with a yoke, from the ends of which bags with the load to be weighed were suspended. Exchange and trade were little developed. There were no bazaars inside the villages. The exchange was accidental. After the harvest, the inhabitants of the highlands and coastal areas met in certain places. Wool, meat, furs, leather, silver, and gold were brought from the highlands. Grain, vegetables and fruits, and cotton were brought from the coast. The role of universal equivalent was played by salt, pepper, furs, wool, ore and metal products.

3. Social system of the Incas

The Inca tribe consisted of 10 divisions - khatun-aylyu, which in turn were divided each into 10 aylya. Initially, the ailyu was a patriarchal clan, a tribal community: it had its own village and owned the adjacent fields. Names in the clan community were passed down through the paternal line. The Aylews were exogamous. It was forbidden to marry within the clan. Its members believed that they were under the protection of ancestral shrines - Huaca. Aylyu were also designated as pachaka, i.e. a hundred. Khatun-aylyu (large clan) represented a phratry and was identified with a thousand. Illu becomes a rural community in the Inca state. This is reflected in the consideration of land use regulations.

All the land in the state belonged to the Supreme Inca, but in fact it was at the disposal of the Aylew. The territory belonging to the community was called brand; the land owned by the community was called pacha brand, those. community land.

Cultivable land ( chakra) was divided into three parts: the “land of the Sun” - the priests, the fields of the Incas and the fields of the community. Each family had its share of the land, although all of it was cultivated jointly by the entire village, and community members worked together under the direction of elders. Having cultivated one section of the field, they moved on to the fields of the Incas, then to the fields of the villagers, and then to the fields from which the harvest went to general village fund.

Each village had fallow lands as well as “wild lands” - pastures. Field plots were periodically distributed among fellow villagers. The field plot, which bore the name stupid, given to a man. For each male child, the father received another tupa, and for each daughter, half. It was a temporary possession and was subject to redistribution.

In addition to the tupu, on the territory of each community there were lands that were called “gardens, their own land” (muya). This plot consisted of a yard, a house, a barn, a barn, and a vegetable garden. This plot was inherited from father to son. From these plots, community members could receive surplus vegetables or fruits. They could dry meat, spin and weave, make pottery vessels - everything that they had as private property.

In the communities that developed among the tribes conquered by the Incas, the clan nobility also stood out - kuraka. Representatives of the kurak were obliged to monitor the work of the community members and control the payment of taxes. Community members of the conquered tribes cultivated the lands of the Incas. In addition, they processed areas of kurak. In the kurak household, concubines spun and wove wool or cotton. In the community herd, the Kuraka had up to several hundred heads of cattle. But still the Kuraka were in a subordinate position, and the Incas stood above them as the highest caste.

The Incas themselves did not work. They constituted the military service nobility, and were allocated land plots and workers from the conquered tribes. The lands received from the supreme Inca were considered the private property of the serving nobility. The noble Incas were called orejons (from the Spanish word "oreh" - ear) for their huge gold earrings that stretched their earlobes.

Priests occupied a privileged position in society. A portion of the harvest was collected for the benefit of the priests. They were not subordinate to local rulers, but formed a separate corporation. These corporations were controlled by the high priesthood located in Cuzco.

The Incas had a number of workers - yanakuns - whom the Spanish chroniclers called slaves. This category was completely owned by the Incas and performed all the menial work. The position of these Yanakuns was hereditary.

Community workers performed most of the productive labor. But the appearance of a large group of hereditarily enslaved workers indicates that the society in Peru was an early slave society with significant remnants of the tribal system retained.

The Inca state had a unique structure. It was called Tawantinsuyu - “four regions connected together.” Each region was ruled by a governor, who was usually a direct relative of the ruling Inca. They were called "apo". Together with several other dignitaries, they formed the state council of the country, which could express their proposals and ideas to the Inca. In the regions, power was in the hands of local officials.

At the head of the state was the ruler - “Sapa Inca” - the sole ruling Inca. Sapa Inca commanded the army and headed the civil administration. He and the senior officials watched over the governors. To control regions and districts, there was a constant postal service. Messages were transmitted by relay race by messengers-runners. On the roads, not far from each other, there were postal stations where messengers were always on duty.

The Incas introduced a language compulsory for all - Quechua. They split up the tribes and settled them piecemeal in different regions. This policy was carried out in order to consolidate the subordination of the conquered tribes and prevent discontent and uprisings. Laws were created to protect the dominance of the Incas.

4. Religion and culture of the Incas

In accordance with the religious views of the Incas, the Sun occupied a dominant position among the gods and ruled the entire unearthly world.

The official religious system of the Incas was the “heliocentric” system. It is based on subordination to the Sun – Inti. Inti was usually depicted as a golden disk from which rays emanated in all directions. The disk itself depicts the face of a man. The disk was made of pure gold, that is, a metal that belonged to the Sun.

The wife of Inti and at the same time the mother of the Incas - in accordance with the beliefs of the Indians - was the moon goddess Quilla.

The third “inhabitant of the firmament,” also revered in the Inca Empire, was the god Ilyapa - both thunder and lightning.

The temples owned enormous wealth, a large number of ministers and craftsmen, architects, jewelers and sculptors. The main content of the Inca cult was sacrificial ritual. Sacrifices were carried out mainly by animals and only in extreme cases by people. An emergency could be festivities at the moment of accession to the throne of a new supreme Inca, during an earthquake, drought, or war. Prisoners of war or children who were taken as tribute from conquered tribes were sacrificed.

Along with the official religion of sun worship, there were also more ancient religious views. Their essence was reduced to the deification not of great, powerful gods, but of sacred places and objects, the so-called uak.

In the Inca religion, totemistic views occupied a large place. The communities were named after animals: Pumamarca (puma community), Condormarca (condor community), Huamanmarca (hawk community), etc. Close to totemism was the worship of plants, primarily potatoes, since this plant had a primary role in the life of the Peruvians. Images of this plant have been preserved in sculpture - vessels in the form of tubers. There was also a cult of the forces of nature. The cult of Mother Earth, called Pacha Mama, was especially developed.

The cult of ancestors was of great importance. Ancestors were revered as patron spirits and guardians of the land of a given community and the area in general. There was a custom of mummifying the dead. Mummies in elegant clothes with jewelry and household utensils were preserved in tombs. The cult of the mummies of rulers reached particular development. They were credited with supernatural power. Mummies of rulers were taken on campaigns and carried to the battlefield.

To measure space, the Incas had measures based on the size of parts of the human body. The smallest of these measures was considered to be the length of the finger, then the measure equal to the distance from the bent thumb to the index finger. To measure land, a measure of 162 cm was most often used. For counting, a counting board was used, which was divided into strips, compartments in which counting units and round pebbles were moved. Time was measured by the time it took for the potatoes to cook, which meant approximately one hour. The time of day was determined by the sun.

The Incas had an idea of ​​the solar and lunar years. To observe the sun, as well as to accurately determine the time of the equinox and solstice, astronomers of the Inca Empire built special “observatories” in many places in Peru. Most major item solar observation was in Cusco. The position of the sun was observed from specially built four towers in the east and west of Cusco. This was necessary to determine the timing of the agricultural cycle.

Astronomy was one of the two most important scientific concepts in the Inca Empire. Science was supposed to serve the interests of the state. The activities of astronomer scientists, who, thanks to their observations, could establish the most appropriate dates for the start or simply execution of certain agricultural work, brought considerable benefit to both the state and all its citizens.

The Inca calendar was primarily oriented towards the sun. The year was considered to consist of 365 days, divided into twelve 30-day months, after which the calendar still included five (and in a leap year - six) final days, which were called “days without work.”

There were schools for boys. Boys from among the noble Incas, as well as the nobility of conquered tribes, were accepted there. Thus, the task of educational institutions was to prepare the next generation of the empire's elite. They studied at school for four years. Each year gave certain knowledge: in the first year they studied the Quechua language, in the second - the religious complex and the calendar, and the third and fourth years were spent studying the so-called quipus, signs that served as “knot writing”.

The kippah consisted of a rope, to which cords were tied at right angles in rows, hanging down in the form of a fringe. Sometimes there were up to a hundred such cords. Knots were tied on them at different distances from the main rope. The shape of the nodes and their number indicated numbers. This record was based on the Inca decimal system. The position of the knot on the lace corresponded to the value of the digital indicators. It could be one, ten, a hundred, a thousand or even ten thousand. In this case, a simple knot denoted the number “1”, a double knot – “2”, a triple – “3”. The color of the cords designated certain objects, for example, potatoes were symbolized by brown, silver by white, gold by yellow.

This form of writing was used mainly to convey messages about taxes. But sometimes the quipu was used to record calendar and historical dates and facts. Thus, quipus were a conventional system for transmitting information, but still it was not writing.

The question of whether the Incas had writing remains unresolved until recently. The fact is that the Incas did not leave written monuments, but still beans with special signs are depicted on many vessels. Some scientists consider these signs to be ideograms, i.e. the signs on the beans have a symbolic, conditional meaning.

There is also an opinion that the Incas had writing in the form of picture writing and pictography, but due to the fact that the boards on which these signs were written were framed in gold frames, looted and dismantled by Europeans, the written monuments have not survived to this day .

Literary creativity in the Quechua language was very rich. However, since these works were not recorded in writing and were preserved in the memory of reciters, only fragments preserved for posterity by the first Spanish chroniclers have reached us.

From the poetic creativity of the Incas, hymns (the hymn of Viracocha), mythical tales, and poems of historical content have been preserved in fragments. The most famous poem is “Ollantay,” which glorifies the exploits of the leader of one of the tribes who rebelled against the supreme Inca.

One of the most developed areas of science in the Inca Empire was medicine. The state of health of the inhabitants was not a private matter of citizens; on the contrary, the empire was interested in ensuring that the inhabitants of the country served the state as best as possible.

The Incas used some scientific techniques to treat diseases. Many medicinal plants have been used; Surgical interventions, such as craniotomy, were also known. Along with scientific techniques, the practice of magical healing was widespread.

5. The end of the Inca state. Portuguese conquests

Pizarro's troops captured Cuzco in 1532. The Inca chief Atahualpa died. But the Inca state did not immediately cease to exist. Residents ancient state continued to fight for their independence. In 1535, an uprising breaks out. It was suppressed in 1537, but its participants continued the struggle for independence for more than 35 years.

The rebellion against the Spaniards was led by the Inca prince Manco, who used cunning methods in the fight against the conquerors. He first went over to the side of the Spaniards and approached Pizarro, but only with the goal of studying the enemy. Having begun to gather forces at the end of 1535, Manco in April 1536 with a large army approached Cuzco and besieged it. He forced captive Spaniards to serve him as gunsmiths, artillerymen and gunpowder makers. Spanish firearms and captured horses were used. Manco himself was dressed and armed in Spanish, rode on horseback and fought with Spanish weapons. The rebels often achieved great success by combining the techniques of original Indian warfare with European ones. But bribery and betrayal forced Manco to leave this city after 10 months of the siege of Cuzco. The rebels continued to fight in the mountainous region of Ville Capampe, where they fortified themselves. After Manco's death, Tupac Amaru becomes the rebel leader.

Resistance to the ever-increasing forces of the conquerors proved futile, and the rebels were eventually defeated. In memory of this last war against the conquerors, the title of Inca and the name Tupac Amaru were subsequently adopted by the Indian leaders as a symbol of the restoration of their independent state.

Tutoring

Need help studying a topic?

Our specialists will advise or provide tutoring services on topics that interest you.
Submit your application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.