The Roman state passes difficult path development. It first conquers Italy (V-III centuries BC), then Carthage (II century BC) and, finally, Greece (II century BC).

The architecture of Ancient Rome changed noticeably throughout the existence of this powerful state.

Many features formed the basis of Roman art. The predecessors of the Romans were the Etruscans. In the middle of the first millennium they already had their own culture. Etruscan temples are similar to Greek peripters, but they emphasize the front façade more strongly: in front of the entrance there is a platform with columns, and a multi-stage staircase leads to it. When constructing gates, the Etruscans often used a semicircular arch, which the Greeks knew almost nothing about. Their houses had a room in the center with an open square hole in the roof in the middle and walls black with soot. Apparently there was a fireplace there. This gave rise to calling this room an atrium (from the word “ater” - “black”).

Atrium - a room with a hole in the roof

In culture, the official state current of Hellenized society and popular tastes, dating back to the Italian past, collide.

In general, the Roman state is isolated and opposed to the private individual. It was famous for its system of government and law.

The army was the basis of world power. Supreme power was concentrated in the hands of commanders who had little regard for the national and national interests, and cities were built on the model of camps.

According to the views of Vitruvius (the treatise written 27-25 BC), architecture falls into two categories: design and proportions (the relationships between individual parts of the building serve as its basis). And the aesthetic principle is only in the order, the columns attached to the structures.

During the Augustan era (30 BC - 14 AD), architectural monuments such as the “square house” in Nîmes (South France) or the Temple of Fortune Virilis, belonging to the type of pseudoperipterus, were built. The pseudoperipter is similar to the peripter, but the cella is moved back slightly. The temple is placed on a high podium; a wide staircase leads to its entrance (this determines the similarity of the pseudoperipter with Etruscan temples). Only in the Roman temple are the classical forms of the order more strictly observed: fluted columns, Ionian capitals, entablature.

Maison Carré "Square House" in Nîmes (France). I century BC e.

Temple of Fortune Virilis. I century BC e.

Types of homes of wealthy citizens

The originality of Roman architecture responded even more strongly in a new type of dwelling in the spirit of eclecticism: the Italic atrium and the Hellenistic peristyle. The richest Pompeian buildings, such as the houses of Pansa, Faun, Loreus Tiburtina, and Vettii, belong to this type. The peristyle served more as a decoration for a rich estate than as a place for the varied life of its inhabitants, as it was in the houses of Greece.

Unlike the Greek dwelling, all rooms were built in strict order on the sides of its main axis.

Atrium

Peristyle of the House of the Vettii, seen from the side of the large triclinium.

Portico and garden in the house of Lorey Tiburtina

House of the Faun (Villa Publius Sulla). Present tense

House of the Faun (Villa Publius Sulla). It was like that before

Villa of Publius Sulla (House of the Faun). Inner garden with peristyle and Ionic order

Pompeian villas enchant with the high perfection of applied art. But there is a lot of vanity and tasteless luxury slipping in: painting walls with copies of famous Greek paintings of the 4th century, imitating Egyptian flat decorations, or, conversely, creating a deceptive impression of windows.

The Augustan era is characterized by stylization and eclecticism. TO the best monuments This time belongs to the Altar of Peace in the Forum. The difference in the relief immediately catches the eye: the figures are placed in several plans, which gives a picture-like quality, but between the figures there is no sense of space, air, or light environment, as in Hellenistic reliefs.

Altar of Peace, built in honor of the Goddess of Peace. Indoor museum.

Relief of one of the walls of the altar

The classical movement under Augustus was the main one, but not the only one. In the II century. BC. supporters of Old Testament antiquity opposed imitation of the Greeks.

Engineering structures. Aqueducts

Among the Roman monuments, there is a large section dedicated to engineering structures. Thus, many elements of urban improvement appeared: the paved Appian Way, a water supply system, an aqueduct.

Pont du Gard at Nimes Pont du Gard

Pompeii. Italy

Rome

Lead water supply

Forum

Art becomes in the hands of sovereigns a means of strengthening their authority. Hence the spectacular nature of architectural structures, the large scale of construction, the passion for huge size. In Roman architecture there was more shameless demagoguery than genuine humanism and a sense of beauty.

The most magnificent type of building was the forum. Every emperor sought to immortalize himself with such a structure.

The Forum of Emperor Trajan reaches almost the size of the Athenian Acropolis. But in their design, the acropolis and the forum are profoundly different. Prim order and predilection for strict symmetry are expressed on a huge scale.

Forum of Emperor Trajan. Italy

Roman builders did not operate with volumes, like the builders of the Athenian Acropolis, but with open interiors, within which small volumes (columns and temples) stood out. This increased role of the interior characterizes the Roman forum as a stage of great historical significance in the development of world architecture.

Forum, in the center - the columns of the Temple of Saturn, behind them the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus

The photo on the left shows the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, the largest building ever built in the Forum in 312.

The Temple of Peace, also known as the Forum of Vespasiana (Latin: Forum Vespasiani), was built in Rome in 71 AD. e.

Building of the tabularium (state archive) in the forum, 78 BC. e. - the earliest of the structures that have survived to this day, in which the system of Roman cell architecture was used, combining two opposing design principles - beam and vaulted construction.

Urban layout

Roman cities, like Ostia in Italy or Timgrad (in Africa), are similar in the strict correctness of their plan to military camps. Straight streets are bordered by rows of columns accompanying all movement around the city. The streets end with huge triumphal arches. Living in such a city meant always feeling like a soldier, being in a state of mobilization.

Timgrad is an ancient Roman city in North Africa, located in modern Algeria. 100 AD e.

Triumphal arches

A new type of Roman architecture was the triumphal arch. One of the best is the Arch of Titus. Arches were erected to serve as memories of victories among generations. In the construction of this arch there are two types of order: one implied - on which rests a semi-circular arch, separated from it by a cornice; another order, marked by mighty half-columns, is placed on a high podium and gives the entire architecture a character of pompous solemnity. Both orders penetrate each other; the cornice of the first merges with the cornices of the niches. For the first time in the history of architecture, a building consists of the relationship of two systems.

The Roman predilection for the impression of heaviness and strength is reflected in the Arch of Titus in the huge entablature and attic. Sharp shadows from the cornice add tension and strength to architectural forms.

Amphitheaters

Amphitheaters served as an arena for entertaining and spectacular spectacles for large crowds: gladiator performances and fist competitions. Unlike Greek theaters, they did not provide high artistic impressions. For example, the Colosseum building, which had 80 exits, allowed spectators to quickly fill the rows and leave just as quickly. Inside, the Colosseum makes an irresistible impression with its clarity and simplicity of form. On the outside it was decorated with statues. The entire Colosseum expressed restraint, at the same time with impressiveness. For this reason, its three open tiers are crowned with a fourth, more massive, dissected by only flat pilasters.

The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) today. Year of construction -80 n. e.

The original appearance of the Colosseum

Colosseum inside

The entire centuries-old experience of Roman construction was used in the construction of the Pantheon: its double walls with rubble mass inside, unloading arches, a dome with a diameter and height of 42 m. Architecture had never known such a huge artistically designed space. The special strength of the Pantheon lies in the simplicity and integrity of its architectural compositions. There is no complex gradation of scale, no increase in features that give increased expressiveness.

Thermal Baths

The needs of city life created in the middle of the 1st century. AD a new type of building - thermal baths. These buildings met various needs: from the culture of the body to the need for mental food and reflection in solitude. From the outside, the baths had an unremarkable appearance. The main thing about them is. With a large variety of plan forms, builders subordinated them to symmetry. The walls were lined with marble - red, pink, purple or soft green.

Ruins of the baths of Emperor Caracalla (Antonine Baths). III century (212-217)

The history of ancient art ends with Roman art.

Before talking about the architecture of the Roman Empire, it should be said that in general it developed under the powerful influence of Greek architectural thought. In their buildings, Roman architects tried to show the strength and grandeur of the building.

The architecture of the Romans was particularly monumental and splendid, and it was also intended for the practical needs of the population. While Greek architecture was famous for its temple complexes.

The Rise of Ancient Roman Architecture: The Empire Period

The most brilliant period of Roman architecture falls on I- II Art. n. e. - that is, the period of the Roman Empire. The heyday of architecture begins with the formation of the empire in 27 year BC e. The first emperor, Octavian Augustus, began to use concrete.

At this time, a large number of new types of buildings appeared: basilicas, circuses, public libraries, and also such a type of structure as the triumphal arch appeared. Progress in arch art allowed the Romans to build aqueducts as well as bridges.

The Romans were most outstanding in the construction of roads; during the empire, a large number of roads were built, some of them still exist today, and they are suitable for the movement of cars. Roman sewers were particularly durable and are still in use today.

The architects of the Roman Empire gave us the crown of architectural thought of antiquity - the Colosseum, which was the largest amphitheater of that time.

During the reign of Emperor Hadrian, the famous Roman Pantheon was built - a temple that was dedicated to all the Roman gods. Emperor Augustus alone erected more than eighty temples in Rome during his reign. After the death of Augustus, construction stopped for a short time, but soon Emperor Tiberius continued to exalt the empire with amazing architectural creations.

Emperor Claudius builds the aqueduct of the same name, a length of 10 km, which has survived to this day in excellent condition. Under Emperor Trajan, a column of the same name was erected, which is now in excellent condition and has practically not been subject to destruction.

The rapid development of architecture occurred during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, who himself was an excellent architect. Under him, the largest religious building in the empire was erected - the Temple of Venus and Roma, which was built opposite the Colosseum.

Hadrian built an amazing defensive structure in Britain, which is known as Hadrian's Wall. This is a fortification system with a total length of 117 km. Today you can see the well-preserved fortifications of Hadrian's Wall. The walls of the rampart reached the height 6 m, and had a width 3 m.

Decline of Ancient Roman Architecture

Roman architecture began to decline after the death of Emperor Hadrian. This is characterized by the desires of the emperors to leave behind an architectural mark.

The most outstanding buildings were: the column of Marcus Aurelius, the triumphal arch of Emperor Constantine, the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus, the temple of Antoninus and Faustina.

During this period, Roman architecture was prone to the use of a wide variety of decorations. This idea was adopted by the Romans from Eastern traditions - Roman architectural thought was losing its uniqueness and independence. Pomposity began to play an increasingly important role, drowning out the greatness of the classics.

As a conclusion, it should be said that Roman architecture reached its peak during the imperial period. At this time, buildings were erected that amazed with their power and size. All buildings were built from good stone, which was held together with concrete. Many Roman buildings turned out to be so strong that they are still functioning (roads, sewers).

The Romans valued those arts and sciences that had direct practical knowledge. The leading arts of Rome were architecture and engineering structures. The architecture was dominated civilian buildings dominated cult. If the Greeks had the main building temple, the Romans created many new types of architecture that emphasized the power of the Roman Empire.

The main building material in Rome was stone And brick. A durable and waterproof building material was created - concrete.

The main design elements of the Romans were: arch, vault And dome, which made it possible to cover spaces without internal supports.

The pinnacle of the Romans' construction activities were impeccable engineering structures: roads and bridges (viaducts), water pipelines and aquiducts.

The rationalism of the Romans was reflected in urban planning. The most common type of development was the city-camp. It had a rectangular shape with two main mutually perpendicular streets - cardo (north - south) and decumanus (east - west). At the intersection of these streets there was a forum - administrative center city, where public buildings were located:

    temple, for example, the Temple of Vesta and the Pantheon - “temple of all gods”

    basilica(court, city archive), for example, the Basilica of Constantine.

    baths(the complex includes a library, lecture and gymnasium halls, a games room, cold, warm and hot baths). For example, the baths of Diocletian and Caracalla, which accommodated 3 thousand people and occupied 11 hectares.

    theater, which was based on Greek. It was built on retaining structures and had several floors. For example, the theater in Pompeii.

    odeon- a small theater for musical and poetic performances.

    amphitheater- for gladiator fights. It was oval in shape, and along the facade there were tiers of arcades, decorated with an order. For example, the Colosseum.

    Circuses- for equestrian competitions, they had an elongated horseshoe shape. For example, the Circus Maximus in Rome.

They remind us of the glory and power of the great empire triumphal arches and columns. The most famous are Arch of Augustus in Rome and Arch of Constantine, Trojan's Column.

Funerary architecture was dominated by mausoleums And tombs(for the nobility) sarcophagi And columbariums(for the middle strata of the population).

The residential buildings of the Romans were divided into city ​​houses and rural dwellings (villas). for example, the urban type of housing refers to Patrician domus. It had a closed rectangular building with a courtyard in the center. Cities were built for the poor population (plebeians) insulins- multi-storey urban residential buildings. For the nobility - palaces.

To the rural type - country villa (rustic villa) with a manor house, a utility yard, a garden, a park, thermal baths, a fountain and a swimming pool.

2. Ancient Greek theater. Its design. Performance and actors.

Ancient Greek theater was considered " school for adults", a school of citizenship, courage, wisdom and played a huge role in the life of the Greek. The theater originates from religious holidays in honor of the god of spring, the sun and fertile land, the patron of winemaking - Dionysus.

Twice a year (in the fall, after the harvest, and in the spring, when the earth blossomed and the barrels of new wine were opened), the ancient Greeks held a ceremony in honor of the god of winemaking " passion of Dionysus" - festivities, autumn - Rural Dionysia, in spring - Great, or Urban, Dionysia. The holiday lasted 5 days - on the first there were processions and sacrifices, and during the remaining four days performances were shown.

Organized a theatrical performance archon - city ​​government representative. He appointed from wealthy citizens chorega -philanthropist, who paid for the production of plays.

Even during the time of the Rural Dionysius, farmers wore goat skins and masks and imitated satyrs. They sang in honor of Dionysus hymns of praise- praises- and depicted some feat. This group of singers was called - in unison. In the first performances only the choir sang, later choir director- luminary- and the actor portraying the god Dionysus began to talk with the choir and with each other - dialogue.

Thus, from the choral songs of the goat-footed companions of Dionysus, the main genres of Greek theatrical art arose:

    tragedy- talked about gods and heroes from myths, raised eternal problems: about honor and valor.

    comedy- the characters here were ordinary people, their shortcomings and vices were ridiculed.

    "drama of satyrs"("tragedy that jokes"). Here, tragic heroes were portrayed comically, and the chorus was dressed as satyrs who represented half-humans and half-beasts.

The theater consisted of three main parts:

    Theatron- a place for spectators, on the side of a hill and could accommodate thousands of people.

    Orchestra- This is a round platform on which actors and a choir performed.

    Skena- a small building where the actors changed clothes. It was located at the edge of the orchestra opposite the audience seats. . Initially, the performance consisted of songs and dances performed by a choir. Later the actors appeared and conducted a dialogue with the leader of the choir. Participants in performances in ancient Greece there were only men. To better see what was happening on stage, the actors played on buskins - special shoes with thick soles that elevate the actor's height. and in male and female masks, which were larger than the hero’s face and had large, expressive features. The masks had a large mouth in the form of a horn, which amplified the actor's voice. The masks depicted the hero’s state: joy, grief, pain, fear, cruelty, etc. A wig with a fluffy hairstyle was worn over the mask. The actors performed in costumes: happy characters in bright costumes, and tragic ones in dark ones.

Greek theater brought worldwide fame Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes.

Aeschylus- he is considered the “father of tragedy,” introduced a second actor and turned attention from the chorus to the dialogue of the actors.

Sophocles - introduces a third actor and reduced the size of the choir part.

Euripides- the third master of Greek tragedy. brought tragedy closer to life, showing his heroes as they are.

Aristophanes- “father of comedy”, who ridiculed the ugly sides of people’s lives, raised questions about war and peace, unfortunate politicians, inequality, etc.

The first major buildings in Rome were made according to the Etruscan example, perhaps even by Etruscan craftsmen; therefore, Roman architecture, at its very inception, adopted the most important form of Etruscan architecture - the circular arch, that is, a semicircular stone covering thrown from one abutment to another. The use of this architectural form and the box vault, cross vault and dome derived from it, unknown to the Greeks, gave the Romans the opportunity to give great variety to their structures, erect huge buildings, impart large size and spaciousness to the interior spaces and boldly build one floor above another.

However, in general, Roman architecture was heavily influenced by Greek architecture. In their buildings, the Romans sought to emphasize the strength, power, and greatness that overwhelmed man. The buildings are characterized by monumentality, lush decoration of buildings, a lot of decorations, a desire for strict symmetry, interest in the utilitarian aspects of architecture, in the creation of buildings primarily for practical needs rather than temple complexes.

The history of Roman architecture can be divided into four periods. The first of them covers time from the founding of Rome to the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. This time was still poor in buildings, and even those that arose then were of a purely Etruscan character. Most of the constructions in the early days of the Roman state were undertaken for public benefit. These were the canals for the sewerage of the city, with the main tunnel - the Great Cloaca, which carried water and sewage from the low-lying parts of Rome to the Tiber, beautiful roads, among other things, the Appian Way, magnificently paved with large, tightly fitted stones, aqueducts, the Mamertine prison and the first basilicas.

from the middle of the 2nd century. before the fall of republican rule (that is, before 31 BC)

The Greek influence, which even before that began to penetrate into it, already affected it very strongly. In addition, the first marble temples appeared in Rome, whereas previously temples were built from local volcanic rocks, piperine and travertine; at the same time, such buildings, both in plan and design, began to resemble Greek ones, although they always retained some differences from them.

The Roman temple of this and subsequent eras usually consisted of one cella of an oblong, quadrangular shape, standing on a high foundation, and to which a staircase led only from one, short, front side. Climbing this staircase, you find yourself in a portico with columns, in the depths of which there is a door leading to the cella, which receives light only through this door when it is open.



Along with similar sanctuaries of the Greek type, the Romans built, in honor of certain deities, round temples, which were their own invention, introducing into them, however, many Greek elements.

Of the temples belonging to the period under consideration, we can point out those that have survived to a certain extent Temple of Portuna

Pseudo-peripter with a portico of heavy Ionic style and on round temple of Vesta

,

furnished with 20 columns of a not yet fully developed Roman-Corinthian style, with a low cone-shaped roof made of marble tiles.

The third, most brilliant period in the history of Roman architecture begins with the seizure of sovereignty over the republic by Augustus and continues until the death of Emperor Hadrian, that is, until 138 AD.

At this time, the Romans began to widely use concrete. New types of buildings appeared, for example, basilicas, where trade transactions were carried out and courts were held, circuses, where chariot competitions took place, libraries, places for games, for walks, surrounded by a park. A new type of monumental structure emerges - the triumphal arch. Improving arch construction techniques contributes to the active construction of aqueducts and bridges.



Typically Roman, however, are the triumphal arches and columns abounding in sculpture, erected in honor of imperial victories and conquests. Even more impressive is the Roman engineering prowess in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, sewers and fortifications.

Roman art was inferior to Greek art in the elegance of proportions, but not in technical skill. The construction of two of the most famous Roman monuments dates back to this period: the Colosseum (the largest amphitheater of the ancient world) - one of the many grandiose structures erected by the Romans throughout the empire, and the Pantheon

, a temple in the name of all gods. The walls, ceilings and floors of public buildings, as well as the palaces of emperors and rich houses of private individuals were decorated with paintings or mosaics. In architecture, the Romans also lacked the Greek sense of style and taste, but they were more technically skilled in the construction of arches, vaults and domes. The Romans admired and imitated Greek art, expanding its influence to the west and north of Europe. Many Greek architects are known to us thanks to the Romans, who ordered copies of themselves that eventually outlived their originals.

But they had their own deeply realistic sculptural tradition, which probably came from the manner of execution of portrait busts of their ancestors, which the Romans kept in their homes not as works of art, but as information about what their forefathers looked like. The simplicity and at the same time bright individuality of Roman portrait art make it very attractive.

Augustus completed many of the architectural undertakings of the previous time and magnificently restored 82 temples in Rome, neglected and dilapidated. Fulfilling his vow made at the battle of Actium, he built a vast forum in his name with a magnificent temple in honor of Mars the Avenger. The surviving remains of the buildings of this forum - three Corinthian columns, part of the wall of the temple cella and several plafond cassettes - can be considered the most beautiful remains of Roman architecture.

Roman architecture became even more revitalized during the reign of Hadrian, who was not only an ardent lover of art, but also practiced it himself in his leisure hours. He enriched Rome with so many new buildings that he earned the title of its Restitutor. The most important ones between them are - Temple of Venus and Roma, standing just opposite the Colosseum.

Of Hadrian's buildings in the provinces, especially numerous were those produced in Athens, to which he, being an admirer of Greek education, wanted to restore their former splendor. There, with his care, the temple of Olympian Zeus, begun under Pisistratus, was completed, the temple of Zeus and Hera, several other temples, gymnasiums, porticoes, a basilica, a theater at the foot of the acropolis were erected, canals, roads were built, in a word, arose new town, connected to the old gate, which has survived to this day. Regarding the architectural style of Hadrian's era, it should be noted that it is devoid of originality, limited to a more or less successful combination of various elements developed during the flowering period of ancient art - the style is coldly eclectic, so to speak, academic, but, with a strong desire for its monumentality and splendor, still distinguished by harmony and grace.

until the final victory of Christianity over paganism (from 138 to 300)

And at this time, every emperor tries to leave a memory behind him with some significant building. Antoninus the Pious builds the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in Rome

; Marcus Aurelius - a column of his name, modeled after Trayanova; Septimius Severus - a heavy triumphal gate, burdened with architectural and sculptural decorations in imitation of the Arch of Titus, as well as a small, but harmonious in proportions and noble-beautiful in details, the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli.

The further, the more eastern influences penetrated into the latter, the desire for pomposity and sophistication, drowning out the traditions of the classical era. This is especially eloquently evidenced by the structures that appeared under the last emperors in such remote regions of their possessions as Syria and Arabia: sunken or swollen surfaces, capriciously bending or breaking lines, an abundance of decorations, often elaborate, fantastic forms - these are the main features of this Roman-Eastern architecture.

8 The image of man in the culture of Ancient Rome

In the VI century. BC, when Greece became the leading power in the eastern and western Mediterranean, an active new force emerged on the Apennine Peninsula - the young Roman state, formed in the process of struggle. There is an opinion that Roman culture is secondary to Greek, that the Romans did not create anything significant, since they followed Greek models in various areas of cultural practice.

Indeed, the Greeks had a strong influence on Rome in various areas of culture. But, firstly, the Romans selected what corresponded to their values, embodied, among other things, in the “Roman myth”, which placed Rome and Roman cultural traditions above other peoples. Secondly, they processed foreign cultural elements in their own way, in accordance with Roman traditions, introducing a lot of specific things. Thirdly, the culture of Ancient Rome is a complex and diverse phenomenon, characterized by a diversity of forms and directions, which has historical and cultural roots. On the territory of modern Italy lived different peoples of Indo-European origin: Latins, Osci, Umbrians, Sabines, as well as Etruscans (with unclear linguistic affiliation). All of them, especially the Etruscans, contributed to the formation of the culture of Rome.

Sculpture of Rome It was also formed under the influence of the traditions of different peoples, especially the Greeks and Etruscans, melting them in their own way. (For example, the Etruscan custom of keeping casts of the faces of deceased ancestors may have influenced the development of sculptural portraits). Valuables and statues were imported from conquered countries, primarily from Greece. But Roman sculptors made their own unique contribution to sculpture. In Rome, sculpture and sculptural relief, mostly historical, were most widespread. In Roman sculpture there is no focus on embodying the ideal of a person who is beautiful and morally perfect, as in Greece. The main distinguishing feature of Roman sculpture is her portraiture, characterized by vivid realism (for example, a portrait of an unknown Roman, sculptural portraits of the emperors Nero, Augustus, etc.). The sculptor sought to convey the appearance of a person as he is. Sculptural images are sometimes not just truthful, but revelatory. These are historical documents of the era. They seem to reproduce the entire history of Rome with its aggressive policy, arbitrariness, idleness and wastefulness of the Roman nobility. The Romans surpassed the Greeks in a number of civilizational and technical achievements. In sculpture, the majestic style of Phidias and the athletic beauty of the statues of Polykleitos, Greek sculptors, on whom Roman sculptors began to focus, were most suitable for this. But they were superior to the Greeks in the subtleties of detail and decoration of marble statues. And in addition to general idealization, the statues, in particular portrait ones, reflected the peculiarity of Roman artistic culture - the focus on identifying portrait resemblance with sharp pictorial characteristics. This feature seems to be related to the Roman tradition of making "imaginas", accurate sculptural images of deceased elders. The Romans created their own genre of portraiture in sculpture - portrait statues (Etruscan traditions). These are the "togatus" type of statue, depicting an orator in a toga, and busts, distinguished by the simplicity and truthfulness of the image. Sculptural portraits convey the individuality of a person with amazing impartiality, revealing even the unattractive features of the person depicted. There are both rulers and ordinary people here. For example, the rapacity of the banker Jucunda and the ferocity and suspicion of Emperor Caracalla are clearly revealed. The greatest example of Roman sculpture was the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, the head of young Augustus. He was called the philosopher on the throne. In his gaze, in his facial expression, the sculptor tries to convey the inner life of Augustus. Portrait sculpture merges with relief sculpture. A number of triumphal reliefs adorn the Altar of Peace, the Arch of Titus. The images on Trajan's Column show the emperor's victorious wars with the Dacians.

By the end of the empire, however, both the majesty of the buildings and the realism of the sculptural portraits seemed to be blurred. Crisis phenomena in life cause in the fine arts a tendency towards pomp, eclecticism and increased, sometimes tasteless, decorativeness.

In the I-II centuries. AD in Rome a new prose form appears, the so-called " antique novel", with satirical, comic content, base everyday actions of heroes and jokes ("Satyricon" by Petronius and "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius). The creator of the actual Roman literary genre "satura" (satire) was Lucillius (180-102 BC This indicates that Roman literature is feeling its way of development, acquiring independence and originality. Satura (satura) means a dish consisting of different fruits. In Lucilius, satura is a mixed literary form, combining different elements, didactic and literary-polemical motives .

Satire, and sometimes very evil, received significant development in Rome. Popular ethical reasoning with criticism of modern morals, condemnation of the vices of contemporary society (perjury, greed, desire for luxury, etc.) with the aim of correcting morals contributed to the emergence of a new genre - classical poetic satire ( Horace, Persius, Juvenal). Satire reveals the darkest sides of life "Oh, the worries of people, oh, how much there is nothing in their affairs."

Roman poetry reached its heights in the so-called "Age of Augustus", the "golden age" of Roman literature. The work of the best lyric poets is permeated with praise of antiquity and Augustus: Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Tibullus. The coming to the forefront of lyrics is not accidental. In an era of crisis of republican ideals and standards, the values ​​of the civil community, the individual, freed from ties with the collective, his individual characteristics and ideals, acquires the greatest importance.
Cicero
In the halls dedicated to the art of Ancient Rome, the greatest impression is left by sculptural portraits. In this area of ​​art, the Romans said a new word - unknown sculptors with great realistic power conveyed in marble the images of their contemporaries - statesmen, philosophers, generals. The face of Emperor Philip the Arabian, the expansive Cicero, the sophisticated and powerful Herenia Etruscilla.

The best legacy of Roman sculpture was the portrait. As an independent type of creativity, it can be traced from the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. The Romans were the authors of a new understanding of this genre. They, unlike the Greek sculptors, carefully and vigilantly studied the face of a particular person with his unique features. In the portrait genre, the original realism of Roman sculptors, observation and the ability to generalize observations in a certain artistic form were most clearly manifested. Roman portraits historically recorded changes in the appearance of people, their morals and ideals.

The ideal of the era was the wise and strong-willed Roman Cato - a man of a practical mindset, the keeper of strict morals. An example of such an image is a sharply individual portrait of a Roman with a thin, asymmetrical face, an intense gaze and a skeptical smile. The civic ideals of the republican era are embodied in monumental full-length portraits - statues of Togatus ("Dressed in Toga"), usually depicted standing upright, in the pose of an orator. The famous statue "Orator" (early 1st century BC) depicts a Roman or Etruscan master at the moment of making a speech to his fellow citizens.

The Hermitage contains about 120 Roman portraits - this is one of the most remarkable collections in the world. The golden mask of the 3rd century AD is close to Roman portraits in terms of expressive power. e. found in a royal burial near Kerch in the 1830s. It appears to be a portrait of the Bosporan king Riskuporides.

After getting acquainted with the collections of the Department of the Ancient World, it is advisable to visit the Special Storeroom, which houses the famous collection of ancient Greek items, mainly originating from ancient cities Northern Black Sea region.


Along with portrait busts and statues, portraits on coins, cameos, etc., and partly pictorial portraits, became widespread. The art of coinage was so developed that modern researchers recognize nameless marble heads from the profiles on coins (accompanied by inscriptions). Early examples of easel portraiture are represented by Fayum portraits (the territory of Hellenistic Egypt, 1st-4th centuries AD), which served as funeral masks. Largely associated with the traditions of ancient Eastern portraiture and with religious and magical ideas, at the same time they were created under the influence of ancient art, directly from nature, and carried a pronounced resemblance to a specific person, and in later examples - a specific spirituality.

The originality of regional variants of Western European medieval art. Christian temple. Artistic styles in the art of the Middle Ages.

The history of the Middle Ages in Europe covers the period from the 5th to the mid-17th centuries. Within the period, the following stages can be distinguished: a) early Middle Ages: V - XI centuries; b) developed Middle Ages: XI - XV centuries; c) late Middle Ages: XVI - mid-XVII centuries. The term “Middle Ages” (lat. medium aevum - hence the name of the science that studies the Middle Ages, medieval studies) arose in Italy during the Renaissance among humanists who believed that this time was a period of cultural decline, as opposed to the high rise of culture in the ancient world and in the modern time.

Religious ideology and the church played a huge role in society.

The main features of medieval culture are: 1) the dominance of religion, a God-centric worldview; 2 ) rejection of the ancient cultural tradition; 3 ) denial of hedonism ; 4 ) asceticism; 5 ) increased attention to inner world man, his spirituality; 6 ) conservatism, commitment to antiquity, a tendency to stereotypes in material and spiritual life; 7 ) elements of dual faith (Christianity and paganism) in the popular consciousness; 8 ) fetishization of works of art; 9 ) internal inconsistency of culture: the conflict between paganism and Christianity, the opposition between scientific and folk culture, the relationship between secular and spiritual, church authorities, the duality of value orientations (spirituality and physicality, good and evil, fear of sin and sin); 10 ) hierarchical culture, in which one can distinguish the culture of the clergy, knightly culture, urban culture, folk, mainly rural culture; 11 ) corporatism: the dissolution of a person’s personal beginning in a social group, for example, an estate.

The art of the early Middle Ages lost many of the achievements of antiquity: sculpture and the image of man in general disappeared almost completely; Stone processing skills were forgotten; in architecture, wooden architecture predominated. The art of this period is characterized by: barbarization of taste and attitude; cult of physical strength; display of wealth; at the same time, he is characterized by a living, direct sense of material, especially manifested in jewelry and bookmaking, where complex ornamentation and “animal” style dominated.

In general, medieval art is characterized by: sincere veneration of the Divine, typification, the absolute opposition of good and evil, deep symbolism, subordination of art to extra-aesthetic, religious ideals, hierarchy, traditionalism, underdevelopment of the personal principle - at the same time, medieval culture expresses the unfrozen forever the state of man and his world, but a living movement. Dynamics cultural development largely determines the interaction and competition between official and popular cultures.

Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries) arose during the reign of Charlemagne. The Romanesque style is an artistic style of the early European Middle Ages, which is characterized by clarity of forms, severe masculine beauty, impressiveness and solemn power. This style of art is characterized by a semicircular vaulted arch that came from Rome. Instead of wooden coverings, stone ones, usually having a vaulted shape, begin to predominate. Painting and sculpture were subordinated to architecture and were mainly used in temples and monasteries. Sculptural images were brightly colored, and monumental and decorative painting, on the contrary, was represented as temple paintings of restrained color. An example of this style is the Church of Mary on the island of Laak in Germany.

The main function of Romanesque architecture is defense. In the architecture of the Romanesque era, precise mathematical calculations were not used, however, thick walls, narrow windows and massive towers, being stylistic features of architectural structures, simultaneously carried a defensive function, allowing the civilian population to take refuge in the monastery during feudal strife and wars.

In addition to religious architecture, secular architecture was also actively developing; an example of this is the feudal castle - house - tower of a rectangular or multifaceted shape.

In Romanesque painting and sculpture, a central place was occupied by themes related to the idea of ​​the limitless and formidable power of God (Christ in glory, the “Last Judgment,” etc.). The strictly symmetrical compositions were dominated by the figure of Christ, significantly larger in size than the other figures. Narrative cycles of images (based on biblical and evangelical, hagiographic, and occasionally historical subjects) took on a freer and more dynamic character. For R. s. Characterized by numerous deviations from real proportions (heads are disproportionately large, clothes are interpreted ornamentally, bodies are subordinated to abstract patterns).

Gothic art (XII-XV centuries) It arose as a result of urban development and emerging urban culture. The cathedral becomes the symbol of medieval cities, gradually losing its defensive functions. The stylistic changes in the architecture of this era were explained not only by changes in the functions of buildings, but by the rapid development of construction technology, which by that time was already based on precise calculations and verified design. Abundant convex details - statues, bas-reliefs, hanging arches were the main decorations of the buildings, both inside and out. The world masterpieces of Gothic architecture are the Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris, Milan Cathedral in Italy.

Gothic is also used in sculpture. Three-dimensional, diverse plastic forms, portrait individuality, and real anatomy of figures appear.

Monumental Gothic painting is mainly represented by stained glass. Window openings are significantly increased. Which now serve not only for lighting, but more for decoration. Thanks to glass duplication, the finest nuances of color are conveyed. Stained glass windows are beginning to acquire more and more realistic elements. The French stained glass windows of Chartres and Rouen were especially famous.

The Gothic style also begins to predominate in book miniatures, a significant expansion of the scope of its application occurs, and mutual influence of stained glass and miniatures occurs. The art of book miniatures was one of the greatest achievements of Gothic art.

Generally Romanesque period in France was the heyday of feudal artistic culture, the emergence of monumental sculpture and painting and the creation of the first complete and consistent style of medieval European architecture. French Romanesque churches, austere and austere, have a special artistic expressiveness. The monumental simplicity of the mighty architectural forms of temples, castles, city and monastery fortress walls, combined either with the darkly fantastic or with the modest and simple sculptural and pictorial decoration, clearly expressed the originality of the worldview of the Middle Ages: abstract, mystical and at the same time extremely concrete and material in their ideas and images .

Church of Saint Philibert in Tournus. Beginning of the 11th century

Since the end of the 12th century. culture and art medieval France have entered their heyday. The transition of French art to the Gothic stage was associated with the general growth of productive forces, the improvement of agriculture, and especially with the growth of cities, that is, with the development of crafts and trade exchange within the framework of feudal society.

The main customers were the cities and partly the king, the main type of structure was the city cathedral instead of the previously dominant monastery church. In the 12th and 13th centuries. In France, such a vibrant church and secular construction unfolded that the country had never experienced. Initially, however, construction innovations were applied to monastic buildings.

One of the most majestic buildings of early French Gothic is the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris (Notre-Dame de Paris). It was founded in 1163. The general rise of the economy of feudal France in the 12th and 13th centuries. and the growth of cities contributed to the flourishing of secular construction. Defensive architecture reached a high level of perfection. An excellent example of it are the fortress walls of the city of Egmort (13th century) that have survived to this day.

Gothic sculpture arose an interest in human character, in the inner world of man, albeit still spiritually understood. The desire for a bright, even sharp depiction of a person’s character is a typical feature of Gothic sculpture at the time of its greatest flowering.

Meeting between Mary and Elizabeth. Sculptural group of the Cathedral in Reims. The central portal of the western facade. 1225-1240

The main centers of stained glass art were in the 13th century. Chartres and Paris.

Since the 14th century. the desire for accuracy and elegance of drawing, the pursuit of a special subtlety of shades has led to the fact that the pure, sonorous tones of glass have completely given way to painting on glass with mixed tones and with additional undertones. By the middle of the 13th century. The actual Gothic miniature, based on the principle of decoration, took shape. Elements of Gothic architecture - pinnacles, fleurons, vials, pointed arches, roses, etc. - became common ornamental motifs in illustration. But the large number of details did not lead to fragmentation - the entire page of the manuscript was designed by the artist as a single compositional whole. TO the best works This type is the psalter of Saint Louis (1270), which belongs to the Paris National Library.

By the 14th century refers to the merging of the principles of English and French miniatures, the creation of a single Anglo-French style, although it retained some features typical of each country. The narrative and sometimes social-everyday interpretation of plots in English miniatures was modified in France towards a greater breadth of coverage of historical problems and the creation of illustrations for works of fiction. Works of the Anglo-French type include the moralizing treatise “Sommleroy” (early 14th century), stored in the British Museum.

From the 14th century In France, creative individuality - the personality of the artist - began to be increasingly valued: not only numerous names of French poets and prose writers have reached us, but also the names of the largest miniaturists.

English art The Romanesque and Gothic period, its evolution, the nature of its monuments, compared with the art of other European countries, were distinguished by many specific features. Firstly, it is more difficult to establish a clear boundary between the Romanesque and Gothic art systems. For example, the first structural elements of Gothic appeared in England unusually early - at the beginning of the 12th century, when the foundations of Romanesque art were just being laid in many European countries. In the 13th century, Gothic style in England, as well as in France, reached its peak. But the elements of Romanesque art turned out to be very tenacious - even after the transition to the Gothic system, they were preserved almost until the 14th century inclusive. The simultaneous combination of unusually bold ideas and discoveries with a commitment to long-gone traditions, the contrast of the advanced and progressive with the inert and archaic are very characteristic of the monuments of medieval English architecture and fine art.

Other important feature Romanesque and Gothic art in England - the uneven development of its individual types. Sculpture did not receive such wide development in England as in the countries of the continent. If in English cathedrals sculpture was rarely used on a large scale, it served primarily to decoratively enrich the architectural image.

From the third quarter of the 12th century. The period of Gothic art begins in England. The growing economic growth led to the fact that from the 14th century. England already occupied an important place in the world market. But, unlike other European countries, industry and trade in England were associated not so much with the city as with the countryside, where raw materials were produced and processed for export to other countries.

The period during which the development of Gothic art occurred was in many ways a turning point for English culture. That was the time of the formation of the English language, which supplanted French speech even from parliamentary debates, the time when John Wyclef proclaimed the need for church reform and promoted the translation of the Bible into English. English language. This is a period of gradual growth of secular trends in literature.

If the Romanesque architecture of England, due to the small number of large buildings, was inferior in importance to the Romanesque architecture of Germany and especially France, then during the Gothic period English architecture occupied one of the most honorable places in Western Europe. True, English Gothic, unlike French, did not leave monuments that can be considered examples of the most classic embodiment of the principles of this style. The scope of English Gothic was limited primarily to architecture and the decorative arts. In no other European state has Gothic occupied such a significant place over many centuries in the culture and national artistic traditions as in England.

Construction Gothic cathedrals in England it turned out to be connected, as in the Romanesque period, with monasteries. The design of the temple and its entire appearance still depended on practical needs and artistic traditions, developed by the builders of previous centuries.

A characteristic feature of English Gothic cathedrals was also that, since they were built mainly by monasteries, their plans, already complex, were supplemented, as in Romanesque churches, with many extensions. So, to Salisbury Cathedral

adjoining the cloister, the sacristy and the chapter hall - a room with a plan shape of a regular polyhedron with a support pillar in the middle, covered with a pointed vault. Additional chapels were added to many other cathedrals.

The fine arts of medieval England achieved the greatest success in the field of book miniatures. Monumental sculpture and painting did not receive the widespread use here that was characteristic of French and German medieval culture. In the decoration of English cathedrals, remarkable architectural decor played a greater role than the plot ensembles.

The search for greater expressiveness and vitality is characteristic of English miniaturists. This problem was also solved by the largest master of the St. Albany Monastery, Matteo Paris (1236-1259). Rewriting the History of England (1250-1259, British Museum) and the lives of saints, the artist dresses his characters in contemporary clothes of knights, warriors, and monks, creating scenes full of observation and verisimilitude.

In the 14th century The development of miniatures followed two lines. In one direction, rich decorative and ornamental decorations prevailed, in the second - the creation of illustrations for literary texts, with finely developed characteristics of the characters. From this time on, the creation of miniatures from monasteries passed to individual professional scribes and artists, many of whom were laymen. At the same time, numerous monuments of secular content arose. In the 14th century Purely secular books were relatively widely illustrated. Already at the end of the 13th century. in England they illustrated the legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.

10. Medieval culture of China has a strong identity.

Chinese wooden architecture attracts with its lightness, clarity of proportions, elegant patterned carvings and smooth rhythms of curved roofs. Chinese painting is marked by lyricism and tonal harmony of dim, transparent colors. Buddhist statues are distinguished by the calm importance of their poses, the dignity of their faces and gestures, and the softness of their lines, devoid of increased dynamics. In China, a different artistic system was created and a different stock of expressive means was accumulated.

The feudal social system developed in the country very early, at the turn of the 3rd and 4th centuries, and artistic life reached its peak even when medieval civilization was just taking shape in a number of Eastern countries. The Middle Ages is not only a long period of Chinese history, it is also a period of enormous spiritual growth of the country, a time of heyday of large cities, construction of luxurious palaces, parks and temples.

The awakening of interest in the various aspects of human life and nature gave rise, on the one hand, to the development of narrative painting and portraiture, on the other - the world's first landscape compositions, as if penetrating into the very soul of nature, showing the life of forest and mountain thickets, animals and birds, their inhabiting. The era of feudalism was marked in China by a number of new discoveries that were important for their time. Among them are the invention of porcelain, the emergence of book printing - first from engraved boards, and then using collapsible type, which made it possible to publish books in many copies and widely disseminate eastern countries with the works of Chinese philosophers, poets and art theorists. The disseminators of knowledge in those distant times were, as a rule, monastic pilgrims and scholar-travelers.

As in other feudal states, the art of China was closely connected with the religious ideas widespread there. The main teachings were Confucianism and Taoism, rooted in antiquity, as well as Buddhism, which supplemented them in the first centuries of our era. However, Chinese medieval ideology was much less subject to church dogma than in European countries. China's religious tolerance was determined by the long-standing coexistence of many sects and religious schools there, which incorporated popular beliefs. Over time, when Buddhism lost its leading role, merging with the ancient cults of nature, the image of Buddha was identified with the entire universe, and painting took the main place in Chinese art, making it possible to reveal the patterns and beauty of nature in a more visual and poetic form. It was painting that determined the originality and significance of Chinese medieval art of its mature era.

Architecture and sculpture

Throughout the country, the construction of grandiose monasteries, carved directly into the rocks, luxurious wooden temples and pagoda towers in honor of Buddhist saints and pilgrims began. Craftsmen from India, Afghanistan, and Central Asia were the builders of these structures. Built over the centuries, the temples in the rocks, several kilometers long, have preserved, as unique museums, numerous monuments of sculpture and painting of the Middle Ages and reflected its entire history.

The earliest of Buddhist monasteries there were Yungang (“Temple of Sky-high Heights”, 4th-6th centuries), Longmen (6th century)

and Dunhuang (or Qianfodong - “10 thousand Buddhas”, founded in the 4th century, the construction of which continued until the 14th century).

Huge sculptures of Buddha and his disciples, massive pillars in the form of pagodas still fill the dim halls of the Yungang caves. Around the huge sculptures of Yungang and Dunhuang, numerous reliefs depicting celestial musicians and Buddhist saints covered the walls and ceiling without any system, painted with delicate mineral paints.

In addition to cave temples, Buddhist memorial monuments - pagodas - are also becoming widespread. Early pagodas, with their soft curvature and rounded lines, still resemble Indian tower-shaped temples. The oldest surviving pagoda of Sunyuesi (523)

Taihedian - Pavilion of Supreme Harmony

- reflects the characteristic features of medieval architecture in China: elegance and lightness. Tall varnished round columns mounted on a platform are the basis of the entire structure. They support a two-tiered roof that seems to be floating in the air, which, according to the ancients, was supposed to resemble the wings of a flying pheasant. Protruding beyond the building, it protected it from the unbearable summer heat and moisture. The curved corners of the roofs give the entire building a feeling of lightness and hide the size of the roofs. Thin walls sometimes consist of openwork grilles that let in soft light. The interior space of the room is filled with two rows of columns and is distinguished by great simplicity and austerity.

Beijing's temples were also located in large complexes. The majestic Temple of Heaven (15th century) consists of several buildings spread out in strict order over a vast space among dense greenery.

Sculpture

Sculpture reached a high point during the Tang period. Statues of Buddhist saints in cave monasteries acquired greater plasticity (statue of Buddha Vairocana in Longmen, 672-676)

Many everyday scenes appeared on the walls of temples, executed in ancient relief techniques, but closely related to the realistic perception of the world.

The burials of emperors, like monasteries, were decorated with reliefs representing not only Buddhist deities, but also real life at court.

Painting

The highest achievement of art during the Tang and Song periods was painting. It reflected people’s admiration for the beauty of nature and the urban life of that time.

Artists created paintings on long silk and then paper scrolls of vertical or horizontal shape, stored in special boxes and hung only for a while. Horizontal scrolls usually depicted stories and legends, which were viewed scene by scene like a pictorial book. Landscapes were mostly painted on vertical scrolls. Often the picture was supplemented with poetic texts written in beautiful calligraphic handwriting next to the image. The “genre of flowers and birds” was also common in medieval China. Usually these are scenes written on fans, screens, scrolls and album sheets, reproducing with extraordinary accuracy the world of animals, plants, fish and insects. Already in the 8th century, Chinese painters, along with transparent water-based mineral paints, began to use black ink, rich in shades. At the same time, different painting styles developed: one is a careful “gun-bi” (“diligent brush”), recording all the details and showing the viewer the smallest details of the picture, the other is a free and seemingly unfinished “sho-i” (“idea painting” ), allowing the viewer, at the behest of his imagination, to think out what the artist hid from him. The combination of a light, empty background, a flexible, always very precise line and spot concealed the secret of the expressive techniques of Chinese painting. The surface of the paper or silk background of the painting, which easily absorbs wet paints and ink, was understood by painters as either an expanse of air, or as the calm surface of a lake, or as a foggy distance. Chinese landscape paintings were never painted directly from life. They were created from memory and absorbed all the most characteristic features of nature.

In medieval Chinese landscapes, not linear, but so-called diffuse perspective was used. The painter looked at the opening view as if from a high mountain, causing the horizon to rise in front of him to an extraordinary height.

Applied arts

The applied art of medieval China is widely known - products made of porcelain, carved stone, wood and bone. Since ancient times, the secrets of craftsmanship in making elegant household items have been passed down from generation to generation. Ceramics 11-13 centuries. refined and varied. As in the painting of the Song period, the brightness of colors is replaced by elegant simplicity, soft fluidity of color transitions, calm and dim. They often deviated from strict symmetry, achieving the most unexpected effects, sometimes imitating precious jade, sometimes using a network of tiny cracks, as if a rich play of shimmering surface was accidentally created by nature itself. Snow-white vessels with an engraved subtle pattern of flowers, yellowish vases, and amphorae with a black pattern were made. Often there was no pattern at all. Delicate taste distinguishes the inlaid furniture, embroidery and fabrics of this time. The soft and grainy fabrics of kesa (cut silk) looked like real paintings and were created according to the samples of the best painters.

Chinese calligraphy- this is an amazing and unique phenomenon in the history of world civilization, a unique pearl of the culture of the East. As a figurative art, it is comparable to painting, since it can have an emotional impact on a person with its richness of forms and variety of styles. As abstract art, it is comparable to music in that it can convey its inherent rhythm and harmony. At the same time, it also has a practical aspect - recording the graphic characters that make up the Chinese written language. Written signs are the visible embodiment of language concepts. According to the method of their formation, Chinese characters can be divided into six main categories (liushu): 1) pictorial category (xiangxing) - a direct image of an object; 2) phonetic category (zhishi) - a combination of figurative and phonetic elements: 3) ideographic category (huiyi) - a combination of a specific figurative element with an abstract symbol; 4) pictographic category (xingsheng) - a symbolic expression of an abstract idea; 5) borrowed category (jiajie) - the use of a sign to record a concept that is not related to it in meaning, but has the same sound; 6) modified category (zhuanzhu) - modification of individual parts of the hieroglyph in connection with its acquisition of a new meaning. The art of calligraphy is realized through strokes made using traditional writing implements called the "four treasures of the study" (wenfang si bao) - brush, ink, paper and ink pen.

The architecture of Ancient Rome - the principles of organizing architectural space that arose in the Roman Empire in the 2nd century. BC. - VI century AD The architecture of Ancient Rome was structured and centralized. All cities were created around one center, consisting of a forum, basilica, baths, amphitheaters, temples to ancient gods, triumphal arches, administrative buildings, statues, schools.

The main center of architecture in Ancient Rome was the forum - a square for meetings, festivals, oratory performances, etc.

One of the main achievements of the architecture of Ancient Rome was the creation of concrete, consisting of wild stone, lime, volcanic ash and pumice. Thanks to the new incredibly durable building material The architects of Rome were able to build multi-story buildings. Such buildings were often complemented by rich sculptural decoration, the main motifs of which were the symbols of Roman culture - lions, eagles, laurel leaves, wolves, etc.

The triumphal arch of Constantine, dedicated to the victories of the emperor, is based on an arched vault - also one of the main discoveries of the architecture of Ancient Rome.

Unlike Greek architecture, the architecture of Ancient Rome was represented by more monolithic forms. That is why, to strengthen structures, Roman architects began to use curved ceilings and supports, arches, which were presented in a primitive form in the architecture of Mesopotamia. It is the rows of arcades supporting the abutments of bridges and the facades of amphitheaters that characterize the architecture of Ancient Rome.

The ancient Roman aqueduct of Pont-duge-Gard in France, which consists of two tiers of arcades along which channels for water are laid.

Aqueducts were also one of the most characteristic achievements of ancient Roman architecture. Stone channels leading from mountain springs were led to settlements at a slight slope, creating a complex hydraulic system. Aqueducts were arch bridges, the design of which later became a model for railway and other transport bridges.

The Roman Pantheon, a temple to the ancient gods, which is a rotunda with a massive columned portico, is one of the characteristic structures for the architecture of Ancient Rome, which later became one of the most popular in many architectural styles.

Also, one of the greatest achievements of representatives of the architecture of Ancient Rome was the creation of vaulted structures. The connected arches, reinforcing the ceiling, formed a vault, and a series of arches in the form of a closed circle represented a dome. These designs became the basis for all subsequent architectural trends.